Food Technology
Ghazal Shekari; Elnaz Milani; Elham Azarpazhooh
Abstract
IntroductionCeliac disease is one of the most common digestive disorder. Chicken nugget is one of the most popular instant and ready-to-eat foods, and wheat flour is one of its main coating ingredients, which contains approximately 60% gluten. Quinoa is a gluten-free grain, as a good source of dietary ...
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IntroductionCeliac disease is one of the most common digestive disorder. Chicken nugget is one of the most popular instant and ready-to-eat foods, and wheat flour is one of its main coating ingredients, which contains approximately 60% gluten. Quinoa is a gluten-free grain, as a good source of dietary fiber, has various applications in the meat products processing system as a stabilizer, fat substitute, structural components, etc. The addition of hydrocolloids also helps to improve the rheological properties of gluten-free products. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effect of quinoa-corn mixed flour in the preparation of nugget batter as a gluten-free combination as an alternative to wheat flour, and also to investigate the effect of adding HPMC hydrocolloid on the final product characteristics. In this research, a rotatable central composite design was used to investigate the effect of two independent variables including different proportions of quinoa-corn flour (0-100, 50-50, 100-0%) and different levels of hydrocolloid (0.5-1-1.5%) on the quality characteristics of nugget. With the increase of quinoa replacement level, moisture content (0.60), batter pick up (138) and redness level 5.5 (a*) increased, and oil content (11), hardness (7.5), brightness level 41(L*), yellowness level 20(b*) decreased. The increase of HPMC also caused an increase in moisture content (0.59), brightness level (L*) of 0.39, batter pick up (137) and decrease in oil content (10) and hardness (7). Optimum conditions for the production of gluten-free nugget were determined by considering the optimal amounts for the production of high quality and healthy products, contained 90% quinoa and HPMC at a level of about 1%. Materials and Methods Corn flour was purchased from the pilot of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The de-saponified quinoa was prepared from Kashmir and then ground. In order to make the grains more uniform, both flours were sieved using a 30 mesh. Hydrocolloid hydroxypropyl methylcellulose was also prepared from Kian Shimi Mashhad. Oyla frying oil was used for frying the samples.The chicken nugget formulation was a mixture of 86% minced chicken, 10% onion, 1.5% garlic powder, 1% salt and 1.5% pepper. After complete mixing, these materials were poured into a freezer bag until a homogeneous and uniform mixture was obtained, and they were flatted until they reached the desired thickness (1 cm). Plastics containing chicken paste were stored in the freezer for 2 hours to facilitate cutting. Then molding was done with a circular mold with a diameter of 4 cm (Dehghan Nasiri et al., 2012).The batter formulation consisted of flour, water, baking powder, salt and hydrocolloids. In order to investigate the effect of quinoa and corn flours, and hydrocolloids, these substances were added to nugget water paste in different percentages (quinoa-corn ratio: 0-100, 50-50, 0-100 and hydrocolloids at the level of 1-1 / 5 -0.5%) and then mixed with water by mixer for 1 minute. The molded samples were first coated with flour and then immersed in the batter for 60 seconds and dripped for 30 seconds. Finally, deep frying was performed in the fryer at 170 ° C for 3.5 minutes. The fried samples were taken out of the fryer basket and the excess oil on the surface of the nuggets was removed with absorbent paper. The oil was changed after twice frying. After cooling the samples at room temperature, the tests such as moisture content, oil content, texture (hardness), color, batter pick up, peroxide and overall acceptance were performed.In this study, Design Expert 10.0.7 software and a rotatable central composite design to investigate the effect of two independent variables including different ratios of quinoa-corn flour (0-100, 50-50, 0-100%) and hydrocolloid (0.5-1-1.5%), Was used on the quality characteristics of the nugget. Finally, different models were fitted to the data obtained from the experiments and the best model was selected according to the results of analysis of variance. Results and DiscussionWith increasing quinoa replacement level, moisture content, redness (a*) and pH increased and oil content, batter pick up, texture (hardness), brightness (L*), yellowness (b*) and cooking loss decreased. Increasing the HPMC also increased the moisture content, brightness (L*), cooking loss, batter pick up, and decreased oil content and hardness. Optimum condition for production of gluten-free chicken nuggets, considering the appropriate properties was found to be 90% quinoa flour and 1% HPMC. Conclusion In general, it can be concluded that the addition of quinoa and HPMC leads to the production of high quality products with high moisture and low oil content and high nutritional value.
Food Engineering
Fatemeh Heydari; Mohebbat Mohebbi; Mohammad Javad Varidi; Mehdi Varidi
Abstract
The effect of various levels (5, 10 and 15%) of fish protein concentrate (FPC) in batter formulation was investigated. The physicochemical properties of chicken nugget were evaluated in order to find the optimium level of FPC in batter formulation. Flow behavior showed that the control batter and a treatment ...
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The effect of various levels (5, 10 and 15%) of fish protein concentrate (FPC) in batter formulation was investigated. The physicochemical properties of chicken nugget were evaluated in order to find the optimium level of FPC in batter formulation. Flow behavior showed that the control batter and a treatment contains of 7.5% FPC had higher viscosity. Moisture loss and fat uptake in control sample was higher than all treatments contain FPC in both deep fat and air fryer. Thicker crust resulted by higher level of FPC in batter leads less oil uptake during frying. Moreover, the samples contain FPC had the highest score in terms of texture and overall acceptability. In spite the fact that nuggets contain FPC had the high rate of our research priorities, however, the level around 15% considered as a limitation. Using desirability optimization, the range between 7.5- 8% of PFC in batter formulation was selected as the best level.
Maryam Sadat Sotoodeh; Nafiseh Soltanizadeh
Abstract
Introduction: Over the last few decades, development of the industrial life has remarkably increased the demand for consumption of ready-to-eat foods. Deep fat frying is a fast and conventional method for cooking and due to creating crispy surface, soft internal texture, desired color and taste has popularity ...
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Introduction: Over the last few decades, development of the industrial life has remarkably increased the demand for consumption of ready-to-eat foods. Deep fat frying is a fast and conventional method for cooking and due to creating crispy surface, soft internal texture, desired color and taste has popularity among consumers. The main problem related to fried food products is the high oil absorption during deep fat frying that is harmful for human health and has negative effects on shelf life of the product. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the role of breading particles size as well as the influence of addition of soy protein isolate in breading and batter layers on properties of chicken nugget. Material and Methods: First, breading was divided to three particle sizes. Sieves with mesh size 40 (0.42 mm) and 60 (0.25 mm) were used for separation of small breading. Also, sieves with mesh size of 18 (1 mm) and 20 (0.84 mm) as well as 10 (2 mm) and 12 (1.68 mm) were used for preparation of breading with medium and large particle size, respectively. Three percent soy protein isolate was separately added to breading with particle size of small, medium and large and used for production of chicken nugget. Also, 3% soy protein isolate was added to batter mixture and then nuggets coated with three different breading particle size without soy protein isolate. Breading pick-up, moisture content, cooking loss, porosity, oil absorption and penetration, color and textural properties of the chicken nuggets were then evaluated. Results and discussion: Based on the results, the coating of chicken nuggets with small breading size led to the product with the highest moisture content and lowest porosity, oil uptake, oil penetration and shear force. However, chicken nuggets coated with small breading size had the highest breading loss. After incorporation of soy protein isolate to breading, the highest hardness and lowest springiness, cohesiveness and gumminess were related to the nuggets coated with small breading size, however, chewiness was not affected by breading particle size. Breading with small particle size containing soy protein isolate caused the highest L*, a* and b* values in fried chicken nuggets. Addition of soy protein isolate to breading layer significantly caused a decrease in cooking loss, porosity, oil absorption and penetration (p < 0.05). These samples had higher moisture content than the control sample. After addition of soy protein isolate to batter layer, color of chicken nugget did not considerably change (p > 0.05). The effect of soy protein isolate on textural properties is dependent on breading particles size. Generally, the addition of this compound to batter layer decreased hardness, gumminess and chewiness; however, its effect on springiness and cohesiveness is dependent on breading particle size. The presence of soy protein isolate in batter layer increased moisture content which in turn could diminish porosity, cooking loss, oil absorption, and oil penetration (p < 0.05). Overall, the comparison between chicken nugget properties when soy protein isolate was added to breading or batter layer indicated that the presence of the protein in breading layer was more effective in retention of moisture, reducing of cooking loss, porosity, oil absorption and oil penetration. However, these samples had more hardness, gumminess and chewiness compared to those containing soy protein isolate in batter layer. Cohesiveness of chicken nugget containing soy protein isolate in breading was not significantly different with those produced with the compound in batter layer.The production of chicken nugget with small breading size containing 3% soy protein isolate in batter layer was proposed for production of products with better nutritional and physicochemical properties.
Maryam Tamsen; Nafiseh Soltanizadeh; Hajar Shekarchizadeh
Abstract
Introduction: The main part of the further-processed foods especially fish, seafood, poultry, cheese and vegetables market is constituted of battered and breaded products. The annual consumption of battered and breaded products in some countries such as Europe, Japan, and Oceania is approximately 2 billion ...
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Introduction: The main part of the further-processed foods especially fish, seafood, poultry, cheese and vegetables market is constituted of battered and breaded products. The annual consumption of battered and breaded products in some countries such as Europe, Japan, and Oceania is approximately 2 billion pounds. Frying of battered and breaded products is used to improve their quality factors which are mainly crispness, texture, moisture and oil contents, porosity, color and appearance, flavor and nutrition. Crispy outer layer and the moist and juicy interior as pleasant textural characteristics are created in fried foods. Chicken nugget which is made from chicken meat is breaded or battered, then deep-fried or baked and finally is quick frozen. Chicken nugget is composed of four layers including paste, pre-dust, batter and breaded layers. Amaranth is one of the pseudo-cereal grains which belongs to the Amaranthaceae family. The color of amaranth seed varies from milky white to yellow, golden, red, brown, and black. This plant has high nutritional and biological value. Amaranth seed contains starch (61/4%), protein (16/5%), unsaturated fats (5/7%), fiber (20/6%), vitamins (E, B2 and C), minerals (calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron) and phenolic compounds. The purpose of this study was to replace wheat flour with amaranth flour in order to reduce wheat grain dependence, improve the nutritional value of nuggets as well as explore the production possibility of a new product for celiac disease.
Materials and methods: In order to investigate the effect of replacing of wheat flour by amaranth flour in nugget formulation, amaranth flour was used at 0, 50 and 100% levels separately in chicken paste, batter dough, and all layers of nugget (chicken paste, predust, and batter dough). Then, the chemical composition and pH of chicken nugget, chicken paste emulsion stability, cutting force, oil absorption, porosity, cooking loss, degree of oxidation, color and sensory characteristics of produced nuggets were evaluated.
Results and discussion: Results showed that increasing the substitution percent would increase the nutritional value of nuggets. The pH of all produced nuggets containing amaranth flour was higher than the control sample and pH reduction occurred slower in them during 13 days of storage at 4 ° C. Emulsion stability was also affected by the replacement rate and reached the maximum content at full replacement. Samples with 100% incorporation of amaranth flour had the highest emulsion stability due to the presence of polar lipids and globulin in amaranth flour which are surface active agents. However, 50% substitution of wheat flour with amaranth flour in chicken paste significantly decreased emulsion stability as this sample had the lowest emulsion stability. It seems that the interaction of amaranth albumin proteins with wheat gluten proteins reduced soluble proteins, which caused emulsion stability reduction of chicken paste containing both amaranth flour and wheat flour. Also the presence of amaranth flour in nuggets significantly increased oil absorption, porosity, cutting force and cooking loss. Oil absorption of nuggets increased by increasing the amount of amaranth used in nugget production, as the control nuggets had the lowest oil absorption. Albumin proteins which are present in amaranth flour have high oil absorption capacity. Amaranth flour has low viscosity in gelatinization owing to the low amylose content of amaranth starch, which decreases the absorption of batter dough to the chicken paste and as a result cooking loss will increase. Porosity of nuggets increased by increasing the amount of amaranth flour in prepared nuggets. Globulin which constitutes about 20% of amaranth proteins is a good foaming agent. Entrapment of air bubbles by globulin caused porosity increase in nuggets. In addition, the results of moisture content of nuggets showed moisture removal of nuggets containing amaranth flour after frying. Steam pressure of evaporated water caused porous tissue in samples. Hardness, chewiness, gumminess, springiness, and cohesiveness of nuggets containing amaranth flour increased. The cutting force was increased significantly as a result of the amount of amaranth flour of nuggets as was expected. About the oxidation, increasing the substitution rate reduced the amount of malonaldehyde in the early days and reduced the oxidation process in 13 days of storage at 4 ° C. High amounts of phenolic compounds were found in amaranth flour, which could reduce lipid oxidation and spoilage of nugget. Amaranth flour darkened nuggets and by increasing amaranth content, that amount of L (brightness), a (redness) and b (yellowness) declined. Lightness of the outer layer of nuggets decreased by increasing the amaranth amount of nugget, due to the presence of bran and betacyanin pigment in amaranth flour which make it darker than white flour. Wheat flour could be substituted with amaranth flour in nugget production, increasing the nutritional value of product by increasing protein, fiber and minerals levels, with no undesirable effect on total acceptance of consumers.
Hamed Mahdavian Mehr; Arash Koocheki; Mohebbat Mohebbi
Abstract
Introduction:Deep fat frying is a cooking method where oil is used as the heat transfer medium, in direct contact with food at a temperature above boiling point of water. The aim of this process is to combine short cooking times with unique characteristics. It also involves heat and mass transfer simultaneously. ...
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Introduction:Deep fat frying is a cooking method where oil is used as the heat transfer medium, in direct contact with food at a temperature above boiling point of water. The aim of this process is to combine short cooking times with unique characteristics. It also involves heat and mass transfer simultaneously. During frying time, the mass transfer is characterized by the dynamics moisture loss from the food and the fat uptake into the food. There is some experimental evidence showing that water loss and oil absorption are correlated and progress with specific kinetic. In the meantime, oil uptake of product is an important issue, affecting the nutritional and organoleptic qualities of fried foods. However, one problem associated with fried foods is the considerable amount of oil absorbed during the deep frying process. It is affected by oil temperature, frying time, initial water content of food ingredients, product surface area, the ratios of product weight to frying oil volume, pretreatments and many other factors. So far, several approaches have been suggested for decreasing oil uptake during deep frying of fried foods. One way to decrease oil absorption in foods is referred to batter coating. In this regard, the ingredients and flow behavior's properties of batter are the most important parameters to determine the performance of batter coating and reduction of oil uptake in the final product. In the batter formulations, proteins and gums can be used as important and effective components, because they have great water bonding and barrier properties, which has strong impact on reduction of oil uptake during frying. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to assess the effects of replacement of Godume shahri seed gum (0.5 and 1%) or soy protein isolates (2 and 4 %), as part of the wheat flour in batter formulation, on rheology of batter, batter pickup and mass transfer kinetic parameters during deep frying of chicken nuggets.Materials and method:Raw materials including fresh chicken breasts, onion, salt, hot pepper, wheat flour, baking powder, and 100% pure sunflower oil were purchased from local markets. SPI (92% protein. w/w, db) were obtained from FSL Co. The batter formulations consisted of wheat flour, salt (1.5% w/w, db), baking powder (0.5% w/w, db), SPI (2 and 4% w/v, db) and Godume shahri seed gum (0.5 and 1%). For all samples, water/dry mix proportion had always been 5:3.Rheological properties of the batters were carried out using a Bohlin rotational Viscometer. For each test, shear rate increased from 0 to 300 s−1. The flow behavior index (n) and consistency coefficient (k) values were computed by fitting the power law model.The chicken nuggets, containing a mixture of chicken breast meat (88%), onions (10 %), Pepper (0.5%) and salt (1.5 %) were prepared in slab shapes using a manually operated cutting device. The dimensions of the chicken nuggets were about 4.5 cm (length) × 2.6 cm (width) ×1.1 cm (thickness) (±0.2 cm). Batter pickups (%) were calculated by the weight difference between the chicken nuggets after coating to the weight of chicken nuggets before coating. Deep frying was performed in programmable deep fat fryer contained 1.5 L refined sunflower oil. Samples were placed in a wire basket and then submerged for the required times of zero, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 minutes at 150 ◦C, 170 ◦C, and 190 ◦C. Oil and moisture content of the chicken nuggets were determined by standard techniques. For modeling moisture and oil transfer phenomena in fried chicken nuggets, Fick’s law of diffusion and a first order kinetic model were used respectively.Results and Discussion:Results showed that Godume shahri seedgum had more effect on apparent viscosity compared with soy protein isolates. Polysaccharidic structure of Godume shahri seed gum prepares high number of hydroxyl groups. Hydrodynamic interactions between polar and hydrophobic groups trap most of the free water and consequently increase batter viscosity. All batters showed shear thinning behaviour (n≥0.529). The power law model was adequately suitable to describe the flow behavior of the batters (R2≥0.994). Coating uptake at the surface of nuggets was significantly affected by the batter consistency. The consistency index for batter containing gum was high and therefore the coating uptake was higher for these samples. The maximum moisture loss rate and the effective diffusion coefficient obtained for chicken nuggets coated with only batter. Addition of soy protein isolates and Godume shahri seed gum to batter formulation, decreased the Deff to 3.55-5.46×10-8 m2/s and 3.38-5.32×10-8m2/s, respectively. This can be attributed to the effect of different batter formulations and special functions of gum and protein. The activation energy to remove moisture and oil absorptionwere 10.79 (kJ/mol) and -7.91(kJ/mol) for the control sample, 13.37-17.64 (kJ/mol) and -5.90 to -9.18 (kJ/mol) for soy protein isolates and 11.9-14.7 (kJ/mol) and -7.56 to-10.30 (kJ/mol) for Godume shahri seed gum, respectively.
Hamed Mahdavian Mehr; Arash Koocheki; Mohebbat Mohebbi
Abstract
Introduction: Batter coating is a new technology to reduce fat content of fried foods. The ingredients and flowproperties of batter are the most important parameters to determine the performance of batter coating and quality of the final product. Among batter additives, proteins can be used as an important ...
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Introduction: Batter coating is a new technology to reduce fat content of fried foods. The ingredients and flowproperties of batter are the most important parameters to determine the performance of batter coating and quality of the final product. Among batter additives, proteins can be used as an important and effective component, because of their emulsifying properties, water absorption, and barrier properties. Previous studies have shown that soya protein isolate (SPI) is a very good hydrophilic protein which could be used to control the viscosity of batter. The batter temperature has direct effect on its flow behavior's properties and has a major impact on the quality of final coated product. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of temperature (5, 25 and Cº45) and SPI content (2 and 4%), on flow properties of the batter and quality of deep-fried chicken nuggets. Materials and methods:Raw materials such as fresh chicken breasts, onion, salt, hot pepper, wheat flour, baking powder, and 100% pure sunflower oil were purchased from local markets. SPI (92% protein) were obtained from GolharKhorasanRazavi Company. The batter formulations consisted of wheat flour, salt (1.5% w/w, db), baking powder (0.5% w/w, db) and SPI (2 and 4% w/v, db). For all samples, water/dry mix proportion had always been 5:3. Rheological properties of the batters were carried out using a Bohlin rotational viscometer. For each test, shear rate increased from 0 to 300 s−1, followed by a logarithmically decrease from 300 to 0 s−1. The flow behavior index (n) and consistency coefficient (k) values were computed by fitting the power law model, and time dependency properties of the batters were obtained from the area between the upward and downward curves. Temperature dependency of consistency coefficients were assessed by fitting the Arrhenius model. The batter coating on the chicken substrate was appliedat three temperatures (5, 25 and 45 Cº), and batter pickups (%) were calculated by the weight difference between the chicken nuggets after coating to the weight of chicken nuggets before coating. Coated samples were stored at -18 Cº for two weeks. After thawing, chicken nuggets were fried at 180°C for 3 min in sunflower oil using a programmable deep fat fryer. The influence of SPI concentrations and batter temperature on color and crust adhesion of deep-fat fried chicken nuggets was measured with image processing. In brief, images were taken by a digital camera under controlled conditions, and then analyzed by Image J software. The Percentage of adhesion (CRA), obtained by calculating the ratio of the pixels corresponding to the perimeter of the substrate where coating is adhered to the pixels corresponding to the total perimeter of the substrate. The color of deep-fat fried chicken nuggets were examined in terms of L*, a* and b*values. Oil and moisture content of the chicken nuggets was determined by standard techniques. Results & Discussion: Results showed thatall samples had a shear-thinning behaviour at all batter temperatures (n≥0.539). Power law model was adequately suitable to describe the flow behavior of the batters (R2≥0. 994). The activation energy was between 5.106 to 5.630 (kj/mol).Addition of soy protein isolates into the batter, enhanced the time dependency, whereas, the increase of temperature decreased the hysteresis area. The relative increase in apparent viscosity with increasing SPI might be attributed to the high capacity of SPI to absorb free water. However, decrease in apparent viscosity and time dependency of batters with increasing the temperature could be due to the intermolecular interactions in batter system. An increase in temperature weakens the intermolecular interactions and increases the mobility of macromolecules which reduces the batter resistance to shear force. The batter temperature and formulation had significant effect on the batter pickup. This effect was mainly due to the changes occur on flow properties of batter. Using SPI increased the a* and decreased the L* of the final product. This could be due to the active participation of SPI in the Millard reaction. The data obtained for crust adhesion revealed that the increase in SPI concentration lead to a decrease in batter adhesion to the crust. In other words, the ability of soya proteins to form film during early time of frying reduces the moisture migration from the substrate to oil, which creates a positive pressure in the inner layer of crust and reduces the adhesion. Conclusion: Chicken nuggets coated with batter containing SPI had higher moisture and lower oil content than the control sample. Finally, the change in batter temperature had no significant effect on the crust adhesion and oil and water content in the final product.
