Investigation of the synergistic and antagonistic properties of Spirulina platensis and Moringa oleifera extracts on virgin olive oil

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

• Sanaz Fallh-Taftizadeh ¹
• Gholamreza Abdi ²
• Fatemeh Zendeboodi ³
• Mahdi Mohammadi ²

¹ Former M.sc Student, Department of Food Science and Technology, Kherad Institute of Higher Education, Bushehr, Iran.

² Department of Biotechnology, Persian Gulf Research Institute, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, 7516913817, Iran.

³ , National Nutrition Food Technology & Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

https://doi.org/10.22067/ifstrj.2021.40174.0

Abstract

 
Introduction: Virgin olive oil has high oxidative stability due to its special compounds, including large amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and a wide range of natural antioxidants. However, virgin olive oil is easily oxidized due to the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), mainly linoleic and linolenic acids. Lipid oxidation is the main cause of poor food quality; for this reason, the use of antioxidants is essential to prevent the onset and progression of oxidative damage and increase the shelf life of oils and fats. Because lipid oxidation occurs following a complex set of processes and no antioxidant alone can stop all the oxidation steps and keep oxygen away, a mixture of antioxidants can be used to create a synergistic effect. Spirulina is a dry biomass of Artrhrospira platensis cyanobacteria. Flavonoids, β-carotene, vitamin A and α- -tocopherol in spirulina are largely involved in the high antioxidant activity of this microalgae. The Moringa oleifera plant belongs to the Moringaceae family, the genus Moringa and the species Oleifera. This plant is considered as a high-potency natural antioxidant because it is rich in tocopherols, carotenoids, vitamin C, flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the synergistic and symbiotic effect of spirulina and M. oleifera extracts as natural antioxidants to increase the oxidation stability and shelf life of virgin olive oil.
 
Materials and Methods: To prepare the extracts of s. platensis and M. oleifera plant, both plants were dried in the shade at 30°C for 24 hours in the presence of air, then ground into a powder. Then, 5 g of s. platensis and M. oleifera powders were extracted with two solvent of ethanol (96%) and methanol. Antioxidant activity was evaluated by measuring the effect of free radical scavenging of ethanolic extracts of Algae Spirulina and Acacia on the synthetic radical DPPH. Determination of total phenol and flavonoid content of all extracts was performed using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and aluminum chloride colorimetric method, respectively. Polyphenolic compounds of the extracts were identified by HPLC. Extracts were added separately (1000 ppm each) and in combination (500 ppm each) to 100g of virgin olive oil and a sample containing the synthetic antioxidant TBHQ and a sample of virgin olive oil were considered as control. Peroxide index, refractive index and color evaluation (L*, a*, b*) of virgin olive oil samples were measured. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software version 19 and the results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation.
 
Results and Discussion: Based on the results obtained from ethanolic and methanolic s. platensis extracts, the highest amount of total phenol in ethanolic extract was equal to 67.19±4.5 mg GA/g and the highest amount of flavonoids in methanolic extract was equal to 12/1±40/267 mg QU/g. In the study of the content of total phenol and 
flavonoids in ethanolic and methanolic extracts of M. oleifera plant, there was the highest levels of total phenols and flavonoids in ethanolic extracts of this plant, respectively, 43.43±0.71 mg GA/g and 23.78±1.57 mg QU/g. The results showed that the active compounds in the extracts of S. platensis and M. oleifera are polyphenolic compounds of rosmarinic acid, catechin, quercetin, vanillin, hesperidin, hesperetin. Changes in peroxide value from the time of production and addition of the extract for 8 hours at 2 hour intervals were investigated. According to the results, the lowest amount of peroxide value (0.38±0.005 meq O₂/kg) was related to the sample containing M. oleifera extract at the third storage time. The highest amount of peroxide value was observed in the control and the sample containing TBHQ in the range of 15 meq O₂/kg. Generally, Changes in peroxide value were reduced significantly in the 3 samples containing the extract compared to the control sample and the sample containing TBHQ (p<0.05). The presence of extracts in virgin olive oil reduced the parameters of L*a*b*, but the sample containing S. platensis extract was no significant difference from the control sample (p >0.05). According to the results of peroxide index of samples containing extracts, it can be stated that by recognizing the antioxidant effects of S. platensis and M. oleifera extract, they can be used for industrial use and replacement with synthetic antioxidants.

Keywords

• Virgin olive oil
• Spirulina platensis
• Moringa oleifera
• Synergitic
• Antagonistic
• Antioxidant

References

1. Abu Zaid, A. A., Hammad, D. M., & Sharaf, E. M. (2015). Antioxidant and anticancer activity of Spirulina platensis water extracts. International journal of pharmacology, 11(7), 846-851.
2. Afshari-Jouybari, H., & Farahnaky, A. (2011). Evaluation of Photoshop software potential for food colorimetry. Journal of food engineering, 106(2), 170-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.02.034
3. Ayadi, M., Grati-Kamoun, N., & Attia, H. (2009). Physico-chemical change and heat stability of extra virgin olive oils flavoured by selected Tunisian aromatic plants. Food and chemical toxicology, 47(10), 2613-2619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2009.07.024
4. Baldisserotto, A., Buso, P., Radice, M., Dissette, V., Lampronti, I., Gambari, R., & Vertuani, S. (2018). Moringa oleifera leaf extracts as multifunctional ingredients for “natural and organic” sunscreens and photoprotective preparations. Molecules, 23(3), 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23030664
5. Bamagous, G. A., Al Ghamdi, S. S., Ibrahim, I. A. A., Mahfoz, A. M., Afify, M. A., Alsugoor, M. H., Rengarajan, T. (2018). Antidiabetic and antioxidant activity of ethyl acetate extract fraction of Moringa oleifera leaves in streptozotocin-induced diabetes rats via inhibition of inflammatory mediators. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 8(6), 320. DOI: 10.4103/2221-1691.235327
6. Belay, A. (2008). Spirulina (Arthrospira): production and quality assurance. Spirulina in human nutrition and health, 1.
7. Belay, A., Ota, Y., Miyakawa, K., & Shimamatsu, H. (1993). Current knowledge on potential health benefits of Spirulina. Journal of applied phycology, 5(2), 235-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00004024
8. Bonina, F., Lanza, M., Montenegro, L., Puglisi, C., Tomaino, A., Trombetta, D., Saija, A. (1996). Flavonoids as potential protective agents against photo-oxidative skin damage. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 145(1- 2), 87-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(96)04728-X
9. Boskou, D., Blekas, G., & Tsimidou, M. (2006). Olive oil composition. In Olive Oil (pp. 41-72): Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003040217
10. Braca, A., Sortino, C., Politi, M., Morelli, I., & Mendez, J. (2002). Antioxidant activity of flavonoids from Licania licaniaeflora. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 79(3), 379-381. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(01)00413-5
11. Chang, C. C., Yang, M. H., Wen, H. M., Chern, J. C. (2002). Estimation of total flavonoid content in propolis by two complementary colorimetric methods. Journal of food and drug analysis, 10(3).
12. Choonawala, B. B. (2007). Spirulina production in brine effluent from cooling towers. https://doi.org/10.51415/10321/134
13. Cohen, Z. (1997). The chemicals of Spirulina. Spirulina platensis, 175-204.
14. Crespy, V., & Williamson, G. (2004). A review of the health effects of green tea catechins in in vivo animal models. The Journal of nutrition, 134(12), 3431S-3440S. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132007000100020
15. Cuellar-Nuñez, M. L., Luzardo-Ocampo, I., Campos-Vega, R., Gallegos-Corona, M. A., De Mejía, E. G., & Loarca-Piña, G. (2018). Physicochemical and nutraceutical properties of moringa (Moringa oleifera) leaves and their effects in an in vivo AOM/DSS-induced colorectal carcinogenesis model. Food research international, 105, 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.11.004
16. Dalluge, J. J., & Nelson, B. C. (2000). Determination of tea catechins. Journal of chromatography A, 881 (1-2), 411-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00062-5
17. Dartsch, P. C. (2008). Antioxidant potential of selected Spirulina platensis Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal devoted to pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of natural product derivatives, 22(5), 627-633. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.2310
18. Davidson, P., & Naidu, A. (2000). Phyto-phenols. In Natural food antimicrobial systems (pp. 278-307): CRC Press.
19. Dehlei, Z., Danesh, M. F., & Sahari, M. (2016). Comparative investigation of red pepper (Capsicum annuum) extraction by ultrasonic and thermal methods and effect of it's extract on oxidative stability of virgin olive oil. Journal of food science & technology, 13(52), (2008-8787).
20. De Souza, T. D., Prietto, L., de Souza, M. M., & Furlong, E. B. (2015). Profile, antioxidant potential, and applicability of phenolic compounds extracted from Spirulina platensis. African journal of biotechnology, 14(41), 2903-2909. DOI: 5897/AJB2015.14926
21. Dhargalkar, V., & Pereira, N. (2005). Seaweed: promising plant of the millennium.
22. Egea, B. C. B. M. B., Campos, A. L. M. J. I., DE Carvalho–Eliane, J. C. M., & Danesi, D. G. (2014). Antioxidant and nutritional potential of cookies enriched with Spirulina platensis and sources of fibre. Journal of food and nutrition Research (ISSN 1336-8672), 53(2), 171-179.
23. Fayyad, R. J., Mohammed Ali, A., Dwaish, A. S., & Khayoon, A. (2019). Anticancer Activity of Spirulina platensis Methanolic extracts against l20b and MCF7 Human Cancer Cell Lines. Plant Arch, 19(1), 1419-1426.
24. Fitzgerald, D. J., Stratford, M., & Narbad, A. (2003). Analysis of the inhibition of food spoilage yeasts by vanillin. International journal of food microbiology, 86(1-2), 113-122.
25. Frankel, E. N. (2010). Chemistry of extra virgin olive oil: adulteration, oxidative stability, and antioxidants. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 58(10), 5991-6006. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1007677
26. Ghorbani, Z., Haddadi, G., & Fardid, R. (2016). Hesperidin as a natural Radio-Protector. Journal of fasa university of medical sciences, 5(4), 449-459.
27. Guillén-Román, C. J., Guevara-González, R. G., Rocha-Guzmán, N. E., Mercado-Luna, A., & Perez-Perez, M. I. (2018). Effect of nitrogen privation on the phenolics contents, antioxidant and antibacterial activities in Moringa oleifera leaves. Industrial crops and products, 114, 45-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.01.048
28. Hajimehdipoor, H., Shahrestani, R., & Shekarchi, M. (2014). Investigating the synergistic antioxidant effects of some flavonoid and phenolic compounds. Research journal of pharmacognosy, 1(3), 35-40.
29. Heneman, K., & Zidenberg-Cherr, S. (2008). Nutrition and health info sheet: Phytochemicals.
30. Hraš, A. R., Hadolin, M., Knez, Ž., & Bauman, D. (2000). Comparison of antioxidative and synergistic effects of rosemary extract with α-tocopherol, ascorbyl palmitate and citric acid in sunflower oil. Food chemistry, 71(2), 229-233. https://doi.org/10.3733/ucanr.8313
31. Iqbal, S., & Bhanger, M. (2006). Effect of season and production location on antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera leaves grown in Pakistan. Journal of food composition and analysis, 19(6-7), 544-551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2005.05.001
32. Iran, I. o. S. a. I. R. o. (2011). Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of refractive index. ISIRI no 5108, 1st. Revision.
33. Iran, I. o. S. a. I. R. o. (2018). Animal and vegetable fats and oils - Determination of peroxide value - Iodometric (visual) endpoint determination. INSO no 4179, 2nd Revision (Identical with ISO 3960:2017).
34. Ishii, T., Mori, T., Tanaka, T., Mizuno, D., Yamaji, R., Kumazawa, S., Akagawa, M. (2008). Covalent modification of proteins by green tea polyphenol (–)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate through autoxidation. Free radical biology and medicine, 45(10), 1384-1394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.07.023
35. Karageorgou, I., Grigorakis, S., Lalas, S., & Makris, D. P. (2017). Enhanced extraction of antioxidant polyphenols from Moringa oleifera leaves using a biomolecule-based low-transition temperature mixture. European food research and technology, 243(10), 1839-1848. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017-2887-1
36. Kepekçi, R. A., & Saygideger, S. D. (2012). Enhancement of phenolic compound production in Spirulina platensis by two-step batch mode cultivation. Journal of applied Phycology, 24(4), 897-905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-011-9710-3
37. Keramat M, Golmakani M T, Lari M A, Alavi N, Norozi M, Shekar Foroosh S. (2014). Investigation the oxidative stability of virgin olive oil by using rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) essential oil. FSCT. 0; 13 (60):157-172[In Persian].

38.    Keramat, M., & Golmakani, M. (2016). Effect of Thymus vulgaris and Bunium persicum essential oils on the oxidative stability of virgin olive oil. Grasas y aceites, 67(4), 162. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.0337161

39. Khalighi-Sigaroodi, F., Ahvazi, M., Hadjiakhoondi, A., Taghizadeh, M., Yazdani, D., Khalighi-Sigaroodi, S., & Bidel, S. (2012). Cytotoxicity and antioxidant activity of 23 plant species of Leguminosae family. Iranian journal of pharmaceutical research: IJPR, 11(1), 295.
40. Kuda, T., Taniguchi, E., Nishizawa, M., & Araki, Y. (2002). Fate of water-soluble polysaccharides in dried Chorda filum a brown alga during water washing. Journal of food composition and analysis, 15(1), 3-9. https://doi.org/10.1006/jfca.2001.1037
41. Lalas, S., & Tsaknis, J. (2002). Extraction and identification of natural antioxidant from the seeds of the Moringa oleifera tree variety of Malawi. Journal of the American oil chemists' society, 79(7), 677-683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-002-0542-2
42. Li, H., Wang, X., Li, Y., Li, P., & Wang, H. (2009). Polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of selected China wines. Food chemistry, 112(2), 454-460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.111
43. Lin, M., Zhang, J., & Chen, X. (2018). Bioactive flavonoids in Moringa oleifera and their health-promoting properties. Journal of functional foods, 47, 469-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2018.06.011
44. Makita, C., Chimuka, L., Steenkamp, P., Cukrowska, E., & Madala, E. (2016). Comparative analyses of flavonoid content in Moringa oleifera and Moringa ovalifolia with the aid of UHPLC-qTOF-MS fingerprinting. South African journal of botany, 105, 116-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2015.12.007
45. Martinez-Tome, M., Jimenez, A. M., Ruggieri, S., Frega, N., Strabbioli, R., & Murcia, M. A. (2001). Antioxidant properties of Mediterranean spices compared with common food additives. Journal of food protection, 64(9), 1412-1419. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-64.9.1412
46. Mendiola, J., Jaime, L., Santoyo, S., Reglero, G., Cifuentes, A., Ibañez, E., & Señoráns, F. (2007). Screening of functional compounds in supercritical fluid extracts from Spirulina platensis. Food chemistry, 102(4), 1357-1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.06.068
47. M’hiri, N., Ioannou, I., Boudhrioua, N. M., & Ghoul, M. (2015). Effect of different operating conditions on the extraction of phenolic compounds in orange peel. Food and bioproducts processing, 96, 161-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2015.07.010
48. Morales, M. T., & Przybylski, R. (2013). Olive oil oxidation. In Handbook of olive oil (pp. 479-522): Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7777-8_13
49. Morsy, M. K., Morsy, O. M., Elbarbary, H. A., & Saad, M. A. (2019). Enhancing of oxidative stability and quality attributes of olive oil using spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) nanoparticles. LWT, 101, 444-455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.11.056
50. Nichols, D. S., & Sanderson, K. (2003). The nomenclature, structure, and properties of food lipids. Chemical and functional properties of food lipids, 29-59.
51. O'brien, R. D. (2008). Fats and oils: formulating and processing for applications: CRC press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420061673
52. Onsare, J. G., & Arora, D. S. (2015). Antibiofilm potential of flavonoids extracted from Moringa oleifera seed coat against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. Journal of applied microbiology, 118(2), 313-325. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.12701
53. Oyeniran, O. H., Ademiluyi, A. O., & Oboh, G. (2020). Comparative study of the phenolic profile, antioxidant properties, and inhibitory effects of Moringa (Moringa oleifera) and Almond (Terminalia catappa Linn.) leaves on acetylcholinesterase and monoamine oxidase activities in the head region of Fruitfly (Drosophila melanogaster Meigen) in vitro. Journal of Food Biochemistry, e13401.
54. Ozdemir, G., Ulku Karabay, N., Dalay, M. C., & Pazarbasi, B. (2004). Antibacterial activity of volatile component and various extracts of Spirulina platensis. Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal devoted to pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of natural product derivatives, 18(9), 754-757. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1541
55. Pagnussatt, F. A., Del Ponte, E. M., Garda-Buffon, J., & Badiale-Furlong, E. (2014). Inhibition of Fusarium graminearum growth and mycotoxin production by phenolic extract from Spirulina Pesticide biochemistry and physiology, 108, 21- 26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2013.11.002
56. Petersen, M., & Simmonds, M. S. (2003). Rosmarinic acid. Phytochemistry, 62(2), 121-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00513-7
57. PhD, O. I. A. (1999). Free radicals, antioxidants and international nutrition. Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition, 8(1), 53-63. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-6047.1999.00036.x
58. Piroddi, M., Albini, A., Fabiani, R., Giovannelli, L., Luceri, C., Natella, F., Servili, M. (2017). Nutrigenomics of extra‐virgin olive oil: A review. Biofactors, 43(1), 17-41. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1318
59. Pradeep, K., Park, S. H., & Ko, K. C. (2008). Hesperidin a flavanoglycone protects against γ-irradiation induced hepatocellular damage and oxidative stress in Sprague–Dawley rats. European journal of pharmacology, 587(1-3), 273-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.03.052
60. Qiao, , Li, W., Tsubouchi, R., Haneda, M., Murakami, K., Takeuchi, F., Yoshino, M. (2005). Rosmarinic acid inhibits the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in RAW264. 7 macrophages. Free radical research, 39(9), 995-1003. https://doi.org/10.1080/10715760500231836
61. Rallo, L., Díez, M., Morales-Sillero, A., Miho, H., Priego-Capote, F., & Rallo, P. (2018). Quality of olives: A focus on agricultural preharvest factors. Scientia Horticulturae, 233, 491-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.12.034
62. Rasika, J. (2013). Antimicrobial Activity of Moringa oleifera and Its Synergism with Cleome Viscosa. J. Life Sciences, 1(3), 182-189.
63. Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (2003). Food carotenoids: Analysis, composition and alterations during storage and processing of foods. In Forum of nutrition (Vol. 56, p. 35).
64. Sahu, R. K., Kar, M., & Routray, R. (2013). DPPH free radical scavenging activity of some leafy vegetables used by tribals of Odisha, J. Med. Plants, 1(4), 21-27.
65. Samad, L. H., Azizi, M., & Barzegar, M. (2007). Antioxidative effect of pomegranate seed phenolic componends on soybean oil. 193-200.
66. Samanta, S. K., Kandimalla, R., Gogoi, B., Dutta, K. N., Choudhury, P., Deb, P. K., & Talukdar, N. C. (2018). Phytochemical portfolio and anticancer activity of Murraya koenigii and its primary active component, mahanine. Pharmacological research, 129, 227-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.11.024
67. Seghiri, R., Kharbach, M., & Essamri, A. (2019). Functional composition, nutritional properties, and biological activities of Moroccan Spirulina microalga. Journal of food quality, 2019.
68. Senanayake, S. N. (2013). Green tea extract: Chemistry, antioxidant properties and food applications–A review. Journal of functional foods, 5(4), 1529-1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2013.08.011
69. Servili, M., Sordini, B., Esposto, S., Urbani, S., Veneziani, G., Di Maio, I., Taticchi, A. (2014). Biological activities of phenolic compounds of extra virgin olive oil. Antioxidants, 3(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox3010001
70. Siddhuraju, P., & Becker, K. (2003). Antioxidant properties of various solvent extracts of total phenolic constituents from three different agroclimatic origins of drumstick tree (Moringa oleifera) leaves. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(8), 2144-2155. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf020444+
71. Silva, L., Pinto, J., Carrola, J., & Paiva-Martins, F. (2010). Oxidative stability of olive oil after food processing and comparison with other vegetable oils. Food chemistry, 121(4), 1177-1187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.02.001
72. Singh, G., Maurya, S., De Lampasona, M., & Catalan, C. (2006). Chemical constituents, antifungal and antioxidative potential of Foeniculum vulgare volatile oil and its acetone extract. Food control, 17(9), 745-752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.03.010
73. Sonam, K. S., & Guleria, S. (2017). Synergistic antioxidant activity of natural products. Annals of pharmacology and pharmaceutics, 2(16), 1-6.
74. Sreelatha, S., & Padma, P. R. (2009). Antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of Moringa oleifera leaves in two stages of maturity. Plant foods for human nutrition, 64(4), 303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-009-0141-0
75. Sultana, B., & Anwar, F. (2008). Flavonols (kaempeferol, quercetin, myricetin) contents of selected fruits, vegetables and medicinal plants. Food chemistry, 108(3), 879-884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.11.053
76. Szabo, M. R., Idiţoiu, C., Chambre, D., & Lupea, A. X. (2007). Improved DPPH determination for antioxidant activity spectrophotometric assay. Chemical papers, 61(3), 214-216. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11696-007-0022-7
77. Tabee, E., Azadmard-Damirchi, S., Jägerstad, M., & Dutta, C. (2008). Effects of α-tocopherol on oxidative stability and phytosterol oxidation during heating in some regular and high-oleic vegetable oils. Journal of the American oil chemists' society, 85(9), 857-867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-008-1274-2
78. Tirkey, N., Pilkhwal, S., Kuhad, A., & Chopra, K. (2005). Hesperidin, a citrus bioflavonoid, decreases the oxidative stress produced by carbon tetrachloride in rat liver and kidney. BMC pharmacology, 5(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2210-5-2
79. Verma, A. R., Vijayakumar, M., Mathela, C. S., & Rao, C. V. (2009). In vitro and in vivo antioxidant properties of different fractions of Moringa oleifera Food and chemical toxicology, 47(9), 2196-2201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2009.06.005
80. Walton, N. J., Mayer, M. J., & Narbad, A. (2003). Vanillin. Phytochemistry, 63(5), 505-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00149-3
81. Wang, L., Pan, B., Sheng, J., Xu, J., Hu, Q. (2007). Antioxidant activity of Spirulina platensis extracts by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Food chemistry, 105(1), 36-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.03.054
82. Wang, S., Yang, C., Tu, H., Zhou, J., Liu, X., Cheng, Y., Xu, J. (2017). Characterization and metabolic diversity of flavonoids in citrus species. Scientific reports, 7(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10970-2
83. Xiang, N., Guo, X., Liu, F., Li, Q., Hu, J., Brennan, C. S. (2017). Effect of light-and dark-germination on the phenolic biosynthesis, phytochemical profiles, and antioxidant activities in sweet corn (Zea mays) sprouts. International journal of molecular sciences, 18(6), 1246. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061246
84. Zhang, W. W., Duan, X. J., Huang, H. L., Zhang, Y., Wang, B. G. (2007). Evaluation of 28 marine algae from the Qingdao coast for antioxidative capacity and determination of antioxidant efficiency and total phenolic content of fractions and subfractions derived from Symphyocladia latiuscula (Rhodomelaceae). Journal of applied phycology, 19(2), 97-108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-006-9115-x