Influence of Cooking and Fermentation on Nutrient and Anti-nutrient Profiles of Millet and Rice

Document Type : Research Article-en

Authors

Rose Jeeson Merin

Velayudhannair Krishnakumar

Department of Life Sciences, Christ University, Dharmaram College Post, Hosur Road, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

https://doi.org/10.22067/ifstrj.2025.95480.1474

Abstract

This study investigates how the traditional processing methods, such as cooking and fermentation, affect the nutritional, anti-nutritional, and mineral composition of the six edible grains, including the three rice varieties (Oryza sativa: Matta, Boiled and Brown rice) and the three millets (foxtail, jowar and pearl millet). The grains were analyzed in their raw, cooked, and fermented forms. The carbohydrates and the protein content were determined along with the anti-nutritional compounds such as the flavonoids, oxalates, phenolics, phytates and the tannins. The mineral concentrations of calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and zinc were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. The results showed that cooking significantly reduced carbohydrate content by 85-90% across all grains, while fermentation caused an even greater reduction of up to 95%. Protein levels were grain-specific, and fermentation generally enhanced the protein concentration by 20-50%. Flavonoid content was reduced by 70-90% while phytates, and oxalates were reduced substantially by 60-90% through both treatments due to leaching and thermal degradation, while the phenolic content increased by 25-40%, particularly in the foxtail millet. The tannin levels decreased with cooking by 40-60%, but they increased after the fermentation, likely due to the enzymatic release of the bound compounds. Mineral concentrations were consistently declined in the cooking and fermented forms, yet fermentation improved bioavailability by reducing the anti-nutrients. Overall, the cooking was more effective in lowering the anti-nutritional factors, whereas the fermentation enhanced the protein and improved the accessibility of the essential minerals such as iron and zinc. These findings emphasizes the importance of the traditional household processing methods in enhancing the nutritional quality of rice and millet-based diets, particularly in the regions dependent on cereal staples.

Keywords

Bioavailability

Fermentation

Millet

Mineral content

Rice varieties

Subjects

• Food Chemistry

---

Authors retain the copyright. This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

References

1. Adebo, O.A., Oyedeji, A.B., Adebiyi, J.A., Chinma, C.E., Oyeyinka, S.A., Olatunde, O.O., Green, E., Njobeh, P.B., & Kondiah, K. (2021). Kinetics of phenolic compounds modification during maize flour fermentation. Molecules, 26(21), 6702. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216702
2. Alotaibi, S.H., Babiker, E.E., Alshammari, G.M., & Yahya, M.A. (2024). The effect of cooking and simulated digestion on the antioxidants and minerals in rice grains: A predictor for nutritional efficiency. Agriculture, 14(8), 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081270
3. Arguedas-Villa, C., Kovacevic, J., Allen, K.J., Stephan, R., & Tasara, T. (2014). Cold growth behaviour and genetic comparison of Canadian and Swiss Listeria monocytogenes strains associated with the food supply chain and human listeriosis cases. Food Microbiology, 40, 81–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2014.01.001
4. Bag, G.C., Grihanjali Devi, P., & Bhaigyabati, T.H. (2015). Assessment of total flavonoid content and antioxidant activity of methanolic rhizome extract of three Hedychium species of Manipur valley. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research, 30(1), 154–159.
5. Bastías, J.M., Balladares, P., Acuña, S., Quevedo, R., & Muñoz, O. (2017). Determining the effect of different cooking methods on the nutritional composition of salmon (Salmo salar) and Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) fillets. PLoS ONE, 12(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180993
6. Bhat, F.M., Sommano, S.R., Riar, C.S., Seesuriyachan, P., Chaiyaso, T., & Prom-u-Thai, C. (2020). Status of bioactive compounds from bran of pigmented traditional rice varieties and their scope in production of medicinal food with nutraceutical importance. Agronomy, 10(11), 1817. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10111817
7. Calcium-Health Professional Fact Sheet. (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2025, from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-HealthProfessional/
8. Chung, K.T., Wong, T.Y., Wei, C.I., Huang, Y.W., & Lin, Y. (1998). Tannins and human health: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 38(6), 421–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408699891274273
9. DeLoughery, T.G. (2017). Iron Deficiency Anaemia. Medical Clinics of North America, 101(2), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.004
10. Dewanto, V., Xianzhong, W., Adom, K.K., & Liu, R.H. (2002). Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(10), 3010–3014. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0115589
11. Domán, A., Dóka, É., Garai, D., Bogdándi, V., Balla, G., Balla, J., & Nagy, P. (2023b). Interactions of reactive sulfur species with metalloproteins. Redox Biology, 60, 102617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2023.102617
12. Agrawal, N., Hidame, P., & Gurla, S. (2011). Estimation of total carbohydrate in flour of different types of grain. International Journal of Research. Biosci. Technol, 3, 36-40.
13. Evans, J.R., & Lawrenson, J.G. (2017). Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2017(7). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000254.pub5
14. Everette, J.D., Bryant, Q.M., Green, A.M., Abbey, Y.A., Wangila, G.W., & Walker, R.B. (2010). A thorough study of reactivity of various compound classes towards the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(14), 8139. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1005935
15. Fraga, C.G. (2005). Relevance, essentiality and toxicity of trace elements in human health. Molecular Aspects of Medicine, 26(4–5), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.013
16. Fukushima, A., Uchino, G., Akabane, T., Aiseki, A., Perera, I., & Hirotsu, N. (2020). Phytic acid in brown rice can be reduced by increasing soaking temperature. Foods 23, 10(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010023
17. Gibson, R.S. (2007). The role of diet- and host-related factors in nutrient bioavailability and thus in nutrient-based dietary requirement estimates. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 28(1 SUPPL. 1). https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265070281S108
18. Harris, R.S., & Mosher, L.M. (1934). Estimation of phytin phosphorus. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry- Analytical Edition, 6(5), 320–321. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac50091a007
19. Hayes, M. (2020). Measuring protein content in food: An overview of methods. Foods, 9(10), 1340. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101340
20. Hemalatha, S., Platel, K., & Srinivasan, K. (2005). Influence of food acidulants on bioaccessibility of zinc and iron from selected food grains. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 49(10), 950–956. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.200500068
21. Hur, S.J., Lee, S.Y., Kim, Y.C., Choi, I., & Kim, G.B. (2014). Effect of fermentation on the antioxidant activity in plant-based foods. Food Chemistry, 160, 346–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.112
22. Irakli, M., Lazaridou, A., & Biliaderis, C.G. (2020). Comparative evaluation of the nutritional, antinutritional, functional, and bioactivity attributes of rice bran stabilized by different heat treatments. Foods 57, 10(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010057
23. Jiménez-Monreal, A.M., García-Diz, L., Martínez-Tomé, M., Mariscal, M., & Murcia, M.A. (2009). Influence of cooking methods on antioxidant activity of vegetables. Journal of Food Science, 74(3), H97–H103. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01091.x
24. Kumari, A., & Roy, A. (2023). Enhancing micronutrient absorption through simultaneous fortification and phytic acid degradation. Food Science and Biotechnology, 32(9), 1235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-023-01255-8
25. Lang, K.W., Whitney, R.M.L., & Steinberg, M.P. (1982). Mass balance model for enthalpy of water binding by a mixture. Journal of Food Science, 47(1), 110–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb11039.x
26. Li, W., Beta, T., Sun, S., & Corke, H. (2006). Protein characteristics of Chinese black-grained wheat. Food Chemistry, 98(3), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.06.020
27. Limberger-Bayer, V.M., De Francisco, A., Chan, A., Oro, T., Ogliari, P.J., & Barreto, P.L.M. (2014). Barley β-glucans extraction and partial characterization. Food Chemistry, 154, 84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.12.104
28. Liu, K., Zheng, J., & Chen, F. (2019). Effect of domestic cooking on rice protein digestibility. Food Science & Nutrition, 7(2), 608. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.884
29. Lowry, O.H, Rosebrough, N.J, Farr, A.L, Randall, R.J. (1951). Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 193(1), 265-75.
30. Mæhre, H.K., Dalheim, L., Edvinsen, G.K., Elvevoll, E.O., & Jensen, I.J. (2018). Protein determination—Method matters. Foods, 7(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods7010005
31. Makokha, A.O., Oniang’o, R.K., Njoroge, S.M., & Kamar, O.K. (2002). Effect of traditional fermentation and malting on phytic acid and mineral availability from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and finger Millet (Eleusine coracana) grain varieties grown in Kenya. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 23(3 SUPP), 241–245 https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265020233S147
32. Maqbool, N., Sofi, S.A., Makroo, H.A., Mir, S.A., Majid, D., & Dar, B.N. (2021). Cooking methods affect eating quality, bio-functional components, antinutritional compounds and sensory attributes of selected vegetables. Italian Journal of Food Science, 33(SP1), 150–162. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v33iSP1.2092
33. Marks, D.L., Buchsbaum, R., & Swain, T. (1985). Measurement of total protein in plant samples in the presence of tannins. Analytical Biochemistry, 147(1), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(85)90019-3
34. Meiners, C.R., Derise, N.L., Lau, H.C., Crews, M.G., Ritchey, S.J., & Murphy, E.W. (1976). The content of nine mineral elements in raw and cooked mature dry legumes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 24(6), 1126–1130. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf60208a036
35. (2024). The impact of food processing techniques on nutrient retention and bioavailability. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8(2).
36. Nakandalage, N., Nicolas, M., Norton, R.M., Hirotsu, N., Milham, P.J., & Seneweera, S. (2016). Improving rice zinc biofortification success rates through genetic and crop management approaches in a changing environment. Frontiers in Plant Science, Vol. 7. Frontiers Research Foundation. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00764
37. Neocleous, V., Shammas, C., Phedonos, A., Phylactou, L., & Skordis, N. (2014a). Phenotypic variability of hyperandrogenemia in females heterozygous for CYP21A2 mutations. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 18(Suppl 1), S72. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.145077
38. Nielsen, S.S. (2009). Phenol-sulfuric acid method for total carbohydrates. In Food analysis laboratory manual(pp. 47-53). Boston, MA: Springer Us. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1463-7_6
39. Nkhata, S.G., Ayua, E., Kamau, E.H., & Shingiro, J.B. (2018). Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes. Food Science and Nutrition, 6(8), 2446–2458. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.846
40. Okwu, D.E., & Orji, B.O. (2007). Phytochemical composition and nutritional quality of selected tropical edible grains of northern Nigeria. Food, 1(2), 145–450
41. Olives Barba, A.I., Cámara Hurtado, M., Sánchez Mata, M.C., Fernández Ruiz, V., & López Sáenz De Tejada, M. (2006). Application of a UV–vis detection-HPLC method for a rapid determination of lycopene and β-carotene in vegetables. Food Chemistry, 95(2), 328–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.02.028
42. Penafiel, D., Lachat, C., Espinel, R., Van Damme, P., & Kolsteren, P. (2011). A systematic review on the contributions of edible plant and animal biodiversity to human diets. EcoHealth, 8(3), 381–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-011-0700-3
43. Perera, I., Seneweera, S., & Hirotsu, N. (2018). Manipulating the phytic acid content of rice grain toward improving micronutrient bioavailability. Rice, 11(1), 1–13.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12284-018-0200-y
44. Quintaes, K.D., & Diez-Garcia, R.W. (2015). The importance of minerals in the human diet. Handbook of Mineral Elements in Food, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118654316.ch1
45. Redmile-Gordon, M.A., Brookes, P.C., Evershed, R.P., Goulding, K.W.T., & Hirsch, P.R. (2013). Measuring the soil microbial biomass: Carbon and nitrogen versus phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 66, 188–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2003.10.002
46. Rodríguez, M., Bianchi, F., Simonato, B., Rizzi, C., & Tironi, V.A. (2025). Functional breads enriched with amaranth flour and grape pomace peels: protein fraction bioaccessibility and antioxidant properties. Sustainable Food Proteins, 3(4), e70035. https://doi.org/10.1002/sfp2.70035
47. Savard, C., Lemieux, S., Weisnagel, S.J., Fontaine-Bisson, B., Gagnon, C., Robitaille, J., & Morisset, A.S. (2019). Correction: Savard et al. Trimester-specific Dietary intakes in a sample of French-Canadian pregnant women in comparison with national nutritional guidelines. Nutrients, 11(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060768
48. Sheethal, H.V., Baruah, C., Subhash, K., Ananthan, R., & Longvah, T. (2022). Insights of nutritional and anti-nutritional retention in traditionally processed millets. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 735356. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.735356
49. Shi, L., Arntfield, S.D., & Nickerson, M. (2018). Changes in levels of phytic acid, lectins and oxalates during soaking and cooking of Canadian pulses. Food Research International, 107, 660–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.056
50. Shrestha, J., Kandel, M., Subedi, S., & Shah, K.K. (2020). Role of nutrients in rice (Oryza sativa): A review. Agrica, 9(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.5958/2394-448X.2020.00008.5
51. Siqueira, A.C.O., Mascarin, G.M., Gonçalves, C.R.N.C.B., Marcon, J., Quecine, M.C., Figueira, A., & Delalibera, Í. (2020). Multi-trait biochemical features of Metarhizium species and their activities that stimulate the growth of tomato plants. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4, 535160. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00137
52. Slavin, J.L., Jacobs, D., Marquart, L., & Wiemer, K. (2001). The role of whole grains in disease prevention. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101(7), 780–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00194-8
53. Smith, J.L. (1982). Plant constituents interfering with the Lowry method of protein determination. In Okla. Acad. Sci (Vol. 62).
54. Suliburska, J., & Krejpcio, Z. (2014). Evaluation of the content and bioaccessibility of iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium from groats, rice, leguminous grains and nuts. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51(3), 589–594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-011-0535-5
55. Turkmen, N., Sari, F., & Velioglu, Y.S. (2005). The effect of cooking methods on total phenolics and antioxidant activity of selected green vegetables. Food Chemistry, 93(4), 713–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.12.038
56. Van Buren, J.P., & Robinson, W.B. (1969). Formation of complexes between protein and tannic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 17(4), 772–777. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf60164a003
57. Wairich, A., Ricachenevsky, F.K., & Lee, S. (2022, November 7). A tale of two metals: Biofortification of rice grains with iron and zinc. Frontiers in Plant Science, Vol. 13. Frontiers Media S.A https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.944624
58. Welch, R.M., & Graham, R.D. (2004). Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. Journal of Experimental Botany, 55(396), 353–364. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erh064
59. Wisetkomolmat, J., Arjin, C., Satsook, A., Seel-Audom, M., Ruksiriwanich, W., Prom-u-Thai, C., & Sringarm, K. (2022). Comparative analysis of nutritional components and phytochemical attributes of selected Thai rice bran. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 833730 .https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.833730