Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal

Abstract Introduction
Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine triggered by gluten consumption. The only effective treatment is to follow a strict, lifelong gluten-free diet. However, commercially available gluten-free products often face limitations in terms of quality attributes, such as undesirable texture, poor flavor, and low nutritional value. Consequently, recent research has focused on improving the quality of these products by using alternative flours rich in protein and fiber and employing novel processing methods. Chickpea and quinoa are considered ideal sources for this purpose due to their high nutritional value. However, their use presents challenges, such as off-flavors and poor performance in baking processes. Modification processes like fermentation and extrusion can address these issues by improving the functional, nutritional, and sensory properties of composite flours. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a dual fermentation-extrusion process on the properties of chickpea-quinoa composite flour and the quality of gluten-free muffin cakes produced from it.
Materials and Methods
To prepare the dough, water, sugar, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were added to the modified flour, and the mix was fermented for 24 hours at 37°C. The dough was then dried and subjected to an extrusion process using a twin-screw extruder. Subsequently, two types of flour (modified and raw) along with three different levels of xanthan gum (0, 0.15, and 0.3%) were used to produce gluten-free muffin cakes based on a standard formulation. The physicochemical properties of the flours, including moisture, protein, fat, fiber, ash, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity, were measured according to standard methods. Water absorption and solubility indices (WAI and WSI) were also calculated. To evaluate the produced cakes, parameters such as baking loss, porosity (using image processing), texture hardness (over 7 days of storage), crust color brightness, and sensory attributes (using a five-point hedonic test) were determined. Statistical analyses were performed using a factorial design and Tukey's test at a 95% confidence level.
Results and Discussion
The results of the flour comparison showed that the modified flour, compared to the raw flour, had lower moisture (5.62% vs. 7.13%), higher protein (22.36% vs. 19.84%), higher antioxidant activity (60.47% vs. 54.86%), and higher total polyphenol content (28.73 vs. 23.52 mg GAE/100g). Additionally, the water absorption (WAI) and water solubility (WSI) indices were significantly higher in the processed flour, which contributes to its improved functional properties. In the evaluation of the muffin cakes, samples containing modified flour and 0.15% xanthan gum showed the lowest baking loss, highest porosity, and softest texture. The fermentation and extrusion processes modify the combined flour, by altering the structure of starch and protein, increasing water retention capacity and helped maintain moisture and improving the internal structure of the cake. The rate of texture hardening during the storage period was slower for samples containing modified flour and xanthan gum, indicating a delay in the staling process. Although the crust color of the cakes made from modified flour was darker, these samples received a higher overall acceptability score in the sensory evaluation. The dual processing significantly helped reducing the undesirable beany flavor and improving the aroma and flavor of the end product.
Conclusion
The combined fermentation–extrusion processing of chickpea–quinoa composite flour offers an effective green strategy to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory quality of gluten-free baked goods. Fermentation enhances protein digestibility, mineral bioavailability, and flavor through bioactive peptide and organic acid formation, while extrusion improves starch gelatinization and protein denaturation, enhancing dough viscoelasticity and reducing off-flavors. The synergistic effect of these processes forms a gluten-like network that increases cake softness and shelf life. The optimal formulation modified chickpea–quinoa flour with 0.15% xanthan gum yielded the highest sensory acceptance, superior texture, and moisture retention, demonstrating the potential of biophysical methods in developing high-quality gluten-free bakery products.

Abstract Introduction
Food packaging is one of the essential components of the food supply chain, playing a vital role in maintaining product quality, ensuring safety, and extending the shelf life of perishable commodities. Beyond its traditional role as a passive barrier against physical, chemical, and microbial deterioration, novel packaging is expected to perform active and intelligent functions that can enhance product stability, indicate spoilage, and reduce food waste. In this context, the development of intelligent biodegradable films has received growing attention over the past decade due to their environmental compatibility, sustainability, and ability to provide real-time information on food freshness through measurable color changes triggered by spoilage-related pH variations. Among various natural colorants, anthocyanin-rich plant extracts are considered ideal candidates to be aoolied as a pH indicator in smart packaging. These compounds exhibit distinct color transitions in response to pH changes while also contributing antioxidant and antimicrobial properties that can further enhance food preservation.
Materials and Methods
In the present study, a pH-sensitive, biodegradable intelligent film was developed using a gelatin-based matrix reinforced with chitin nanofibers (NCh). The film was incorporated with Malva sylvestris (malva) and Amaranthus cruentus (amaranth) extracts as natural colorimetric indicators and bioactive components. Both extracts are rich sources of anthocyanins and phenolic compounds, which can impart multifunctional properties to the packaging material. The experimental design was optimized using the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on a Central Composite Design (CCD) with two independent factors: the concentration of malva extract (0.05–0.35% w/v) and amaranth extract (0.3–0.8% w/v).
The prepared films were evaluated for mechanical characteristics (tensile strength and elongation at break), water vapor permeability (WVP), moisture content, solubility, color attributes, thickness, and optical properties. Antioxidant activity was determined using the DPPH radical scavenging method, while antimicrobial activity of malva extract was tested against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli using the disk diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays. Structural and morphological characterizations were carried out using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), while Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to examine possible molecular interactions between film components. The color response of the films to pH variation was evaluated over a wide range (pH 1–14), and their practical application was assessed by monitoring spoilage in packaged common carp (Cyprinus carpio) fillets stored at refrigerator temperature for 72 hours.
Results and Discussion
The results indicated that the simultaneous increase in malva and amaranth extract concentrations significantly enhanced the tensile strength of the films from 1.687 to 4.654 MPa, while elongation at break decreased from 24.405% to 15.102%, reflecting increased structural rigidity and reduced flexibility. Water vapor permeability increased from 0.00162 to 0.00418 g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹, whereas moisture content and solubility decreased from 26.501% to 19.001% and from 23.654% to 17.415%, respectively, suggesting improved hydrophobic interactions within the polymeric network. The film thickness increased from 0.141 to 0.231 mm, total color difference (ΔE) increased from 20.99 to 43.47, and whiteness index (WI) decreased from 82.71 to 51.11, demonstrating that the incorporation of extracts led to more intense coloration. The antioxidant activity, measured as DPPH radical inhibition, increased remarkably from 39.889% to 71.021% (p < 0.001), confirming the strong radical scavenging potential of the incorporated extracts. Malva extract showed notable antimicrobial effects, with inhibition zones of 8 mm (MIC = 13.86 ppm) against S. aureus and 9 mm (MIC = 24.67 ppm) against E. coli, highlighting its effectiveness as a natural antimicrobial agent.
SEM and AFM analyses revealed improved surface uniformity and better compatibility between gelatin and chitin nanofibers in the presence of the extracts, while XRD results indicated that the semi-crystalline nature of the films remained largely unchanged. FTIR spectra confirmed hydrogen bonding interactions between the hydroxyl and amide groups of the extracts and the polymeric matrix, validating molecular-level compatibility. The pH-sensitivity evaluation demonstrated a distinct color shift across the pH range of 1 to 14, from red in strongly acidic conditions to yellow under alkaline environments. This visible and reversible color transition indicated the suitability of the films as pH-sensitive indicator. In practical application tests, the films successfully detected fish spoilage after 72 hours of storage at refrigerator temperature by exhibiting an obvious and easily perceivable color change corresponding to the increase in pH caused by microbial activity.
Conclusion
Overall, the developed gelatin/chitin nanofiber-based films incorporated with Malva sylvestris and Amaranthus cruentus extracts exhibited desirable physicochemical, mechanical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties, along with excellent pH sensitivity. These multifunctional attributes make the films a promising candidate for use as intelligent and active food packaging materials capable of real-time freshness monitoring. Furthermore, the biodegradable nature of the materials provides an environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional synthetic packaging. Future studies are recommended to investigate the color stability, performance, and long-term durability of these films under refrigerated and industrial storage conditions to support their potential commercialization in smart packaging systems.

Abstract Introduction
Addition of dietary fiber sources to high-consumption food products is a smart way to increase the amount of fiber intake through the daily diet. Biscuits are one of the most popular bakery products. Wheat flour is the most significant ingredient for biscuit production in terms of quantity, its quality plays a major role in the quality of the final product, especially in terms of nutritional value and texture. Fiber sources such as cereals, legumes, and other plant products such as nuts, fruits, and vegetables can be used to enrich the wheat flour with the aim of improving the nutritional properties of wheat flour-based products.
Lentils are one of the most important legumes with high nutritional value and low anti-nutritional factors, traditionally consumed as a minimally processed product. The functional properties of lentil proteins are one of the reasons for their special potential application in the production of various types of food products. Due to the presence of various essential amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, and valine, as well as high levels of fiber, B group of vitamins, and minerals, the addition of lentil flour, even flour prepared from low-grade lentils, aids in improving wheat flour and increasing the quality of bakery products.
In recent years, attention of many manufacturers and researchers has been directed towards the use of various cereal bran as a source of fiber in the production of bakery products. Rice bran is a by-product of rice processing and milling and, as a cheap source of fiber, can be included in the human diet. Considering the importance and benefits of using dietary fibers in bakery products, in the present study, the effects of using roasted lentil flour and rice bran powder (at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15% l) as natural sources of dietary fiber, on the physicochemical and sensory properties of biscuits were studied.
Materials and Methods
To prepare the biscuit dough, 350 gr flour, 105 gr f sugar, 105 gr shortening, one egg, 3.5 gr vanilla, 1.75 gr salt, and 10.5 gr baking powder were used. After molding, baking was done at 160 °C for 15 minutes.
The moisture of biscuit was measured using AACC 44-19 method and pH was measured using a digital pH meter (3020, Jenway, UK). Ash was measured according to AACC 08-01 standard method (2000), protein was measured according to AACC 46-18 standard method (1999), and the raw fiber was measured after acid and alkaline digestion according to AACC 32-10 standard method (2000). The Folin-Ciocalteu method was used to measure the total phenolic content, and free radical scavenging capacity was measured using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. Dimensions of biscuit (diameter and thickness) were measured using calipers, biscuit texture firmness was measured using a Brookfield texture analyzer (Brookfield, CT3, USA), and biscuit color (a* (red-green), b* (yellow-blue), and L* (lightness or whiteness) indices were measured using a colorimeter (TES-135A, Taiwan). Evaluation of sensory characteristics including color, taste, crispness and firmness of texture, and overall acceptance was performed using the five-point hedonic scale method. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (SPSS 26, Duncan, P<0.05).
Results and Discussion
The results of statistical analysis showed that partial replacement of wheat flour in the biscuit formula with roasted lentil flour and rice bran powder increased the contents of fiber (to 1.39%), protein (to 8.62%), ash (to 1.97%), total phenols (to 131.27 mg GAE/kg), diameter (to 4.4 cm), expansion coefficient (to 8.23), yellowness (to 26.79), redness (to 6.92) and browning index (to 58.07) of the biscuit. Following the increase in the level of total phenols, the antioxidant activity (to 31.9%) of the biscuit also increased. Although using roasted lentil flour decreased fat content of the biscuit but rice bran powder retrieve it (to 23.65%). By reducing the amount of wheat flour and increasing the amount of roasted lentil flour and rice bran powder, the pH (to 6.62), moisture (to 2.95%), thickness (to 0.54 cm), texture firmness (to 1686 gf), and lightness (to 66.13) of the biscuit reduced. The scores of sensory attributes decreased with increasing the level of replacement of wheat flour with studied additives. However, the results indicated the overall acceptability of biscuits containing low levels (3-9%) of roasted lentil flour and rice bran powder.
Conclusion
Given that roasted lentil flour and rice bran powder are rich in fiber and contain appropriate amounts of vitamins and minerals, and considering the growing consumer demand for such nutrients,  replacing these items with wheat flour (at 3-9%) in production of high-consumption products such as biscuits will contribute significantly to health-related issues, especially in terms of obtaining the recommended amounts of fiber.

Abstract Introduction
Whey proteins are among the most valuable functional ingredients derived from dairy industry. Whey proteins possess high nutritional quality, rapid digestibility, and multifunctional techno-functional properties such as solubility, emulsifying capacity, foaming ability, and fat-binding potential. The major whey protein fractions, including β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, and bovine serum albumin, play a crucial role in improving texture, stability, and sensory quality of food formulations. Consequently, whey protein powders are extensively utilized in dairy products, functional foods, beverages, sports nutrition, and pharmaceutical formulations. Drying is a critical step in whey protein powder production, directly influencing product quality and functionality. Spray drying is the most widely used industrial method due to its cost-effectiveness and scalability; however, thermal stress during the process may induce protein denaturation, aggregation, reduced solubility, and wall deposition, ultimately decreasing powder yield and functional performance. Freeze drying, although effective in preserving protein structure, is limited by high energy consumption, long processing time, and low economic feasibility. Therefore, improving spray drying efficiency while maintaining or enhancing whey protein functionality remains a major industrial challenge. In recent years, ultrasound has gained attention as a non-thermal and environmentally friendly processing technology capable of modifying protein structures through cavitation-induced mechanical effects. High-intensity ultrasound can disrupt protein aggregates, alter secondary and tertiary structures, reduce particle size, and improve dispersion stability. Despite numerous studies reporting the positive effects of ultrasound on dairy proteins, comprehensive investigations on the combined effects of ultrasound pretreatment and drying methods on whey protein powder characteristics are still limited. Accordingly, the present study aimed to evaluate the influence of ultrasound pretreatment and to compare its effects with conventional spray drying and freeze drying on the physicochemical, structural, and functional properties of whey protein powder.
Materials and Methods
Pasteurized low-fat milk (1.5% fat) was used for whey protein extraction using an acid precipitation method. The obtained whey was subjected to ultrasound pretreatment using an ultrasonic bath operating at 20 kHz. Treatments were applied at power levels of 100, 200, and 300 W for durations of 5, 15, and 25 min. The treatment temperature was maintained below 30 °C using an ice-water bath to prevent thermal denaturation. Ultrasound-treated samples were dried using a spray dryer under controlled conditions (inlet temperature 170 °C, outlet temperature 70 °C, feed solids 20%). Control samples were produced without ultrasound pretreatment and dried either by spray drying or freeze drying. Freeze drying was performed at −80 °C followed by sublimation under vacuum (0.01 mbar). Powder yield, protein solubility, fat absorption capacity, emulsifying activity index, and foaming capacity were determined using standard methods. Structural and physicochemical properties were analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size analysis, and zeta potential measurements. All experiments were conducted in triplicate. Statistical analysis was performed using ANOVA, and optimization of ultrasound conditions was carried out using response surface methodology.
Results and Discussion
Ultrasound pretreatment significantly improved spray drying performance and functional properties of whey protein powder (p < 0.05). Powder yield increased from 46.29% in the control spray-dried sample to a maximum of 72.27% in ultrasound-treated samples, primarily due to improved atomization, reduced feed viscosity, and decreased wall deposition. Protein solubility showed a substantial increase, reaching up to 98.11% after ultrasound pretreatment, which was attributed to protein unfolding, exposure of hydrophilic groups, and reduced aggregation. Although fat absorption capacity decreased in ultrasound-treated samples compared to freeze-dried controls, extended ultrasound treatment partially restored this property, indicating a balance between structural unfolding and reorganization. Emulsifying activity and foaming capacity were markedly enhanced in the optimized ultrasound-assisted spray-dried sample, correlating with reduced particle size, higher surface charge, and improved colloidal stability. FTIR analysis revealed changes in amide I and II bands, suggesting alterations in secondary protein structure without affecting the primary structure. XRD patterns indicated an amorphous structure for all samples, with ultrasound-treated powders exhibiting a more compact amorphous arrangement. SEM images confirmed that ultrasound-assisted spray drying produced smoother, more uniform particles with fewer surface irregularities. Optimization results identified ultrasound treatment at approximately 273.5 W for 25 min as the optimal condition for maximizing yield and functional performance.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that ultrasound pretreatment prior to spray drying is an effective and practical strategy for enhancing the quality and functionality of whey protein powder. The synergistic combination of ultrasound and spray drying significantly improved powder yield, solubility, emulsifying activity, and foaming capacity while promoting favorable structural modifications such as reduced particle size, improved surface uniformity, and increased colloidal stability. Compared to conventional spray drying and freeze drying, ultrasound-assisted spray drying offered superior overall performance with higher industrial feasibility. From an application perspective, this approach provides a cost-effective, non-thermal, and environmentally friendly solution for producing high-quality whey protein powders suitable for use in functional foods, beverages, and protein-enriched formulations. The findings support the industrial potential of ultrasound technology as pretreatment step for optimizing whey protein powder production.

Abstract Introduction
Considering the adverse effects of saturated fatty acids and particularly trans-fats found in shortenings on human health, the development and application of oleogels in food production have become essential. Oleogelation is a valuable method for producing semi-solid and gel-like structures from trans-free unsaturated liquid oils. Nowadays, multi-component oleogels, formulated by combining high-molecular-weight and low-molecular-weight gelators, offer new horizons in the design of fat substitutes. In this context, the method of emulsifier incorporation (whether as powder or molten mixture) may significantly influence both the physicochemical properties and functional performance of the resulting oleogels. Moreover, utilizing compounds such as methylcellulose (MC) in oleogel production typically requires complex and costly methods. To overcome this, MC can be added to the molten mixture of emulsifiers and dissolved directly. The primary focus of this research is to investigate the synergistic interplay between the specific ratios of Lactic Acid Esters of Mono- and Diglycerides (LACTEM) and Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Mono- and Diglycerides (DATEM) and the structural support provided by MC.
Materials and Methods
This study investigated the synergistic effect of combining LACTEM with DATEM at various ratios (30:10, 10:30, 40:0, 0:40) alongside a constant amount of Distilled Monoglycerides (DMG). Furthermore, the effect of direct dissolution of MC (0% and 2%) on the textural, physicochemical, fatty acid profile, and Solid Fat Content (SFC) of the resulting oleogels was evaluated in comparison with commercial shortening. The preparation method involved melting the emulsifier blend at 70°C, followed by the direct addition and dissolution of MC at 80°C. This molten matrix was cooled at 25°C for 24 h to initiate full co-crystallization of the surfactants and the polymer. In the next step, the mixture was pulverized using a laboratory mill (spray chilling would be utilized at an industrial scale). The resulting powder was then added to liquid canola oil at a concentration of 15% (w/w). The mixture was heated to 70°C until the oil becomes completely transparent. Finally, the samples were cooled at 25°C for 24 h to form the oleogel.
 Results and Discussion
Regarding Oil Binding Capacity (OBC), some treatments exhibited a slight decline after 30 days; however, samples containing LACTEM/DATEM and MC maintained their OBC throughout the 30-day period. In terms of textural hardness, samples containing two different ratios of LACTEM/DATEM emulsifier, with and without MC, exhibited greater similarity to the control sample. Notably, samples with the higher DATEM ratio showed no statistically significant difference compared to the shortening sample. Also, the peroxide value (PV) of the oleogel samples was significantly higher than that of the shortening sample (p < 0.001). However, the rate of PV increase during the second 15-day period was lower in all oleogel samples. Specifically, the LACTEM/DATEM10-30-MC2 sample exhibited the lowest rate of PV increase. In this sample, the peroxide value at day 30 increased by 1.93-fold compared to day 15, whereas the shortening sample showed a 5.06-fold increase in peroxide value over the same period. It should be noted that the peroxide value (PV) only reflects primary oxidation products; therefore, for a more comprehensive assessment of oxidative stability and the formation of secondary oxidation products, future studies are recommended to incorporate additional indices, such as the p-anisidine value (p-AV) or thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). Furthermore, despite the higher solid fat content (SFC) inherent in conventional shortening, the optimized oleogels offered a superior nutritional profile, achieved through a 16.77–17.7% reduction in saturated fatty acids and almost-total elimination of trans isomers.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the synergistic effect of low-molecular-weight emulsifiers and methylcellulose via direct dissolution offers a viable strategy for promoting public health, as it effectively eliminates trans fats while preserving the essential functional characteristics of the lipid system.
Funding Sources
This research was supported by a research grant from the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (Grant No. 3.5655), and also by Pars Behboud Asia Company.
Acknowledgement
We extend our sincere appreciation to Pars Behboud Asia Company for their financial support, supply of emulsifiers, provision of laboratory facilities, and technical collaboration of this research.

Abstract Introduction
The widespread use of synthetic plastics in packaging is a major global environmental problem, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and pollution. Most plastics are non-biodegradable, accumulated in the environment, fragmented into ecosystems, and eventually give rise to harmful microplastics. Incineration of plastics also releases toxic gases, further polluting the air. Developing biodegradable alternatives from natural sources like proteins and polysaccharides is crucial for sustainable packaging. These biopolymer films, like those made from salep and enhanced with natural additives such as turmeric and selenium, offer improved functionality including antioxidant and antibacterial properties.
 Materials and Methods
Salep and turmeric powders were obtained from medicinal plant stores in Urmia, West Azerbaijan, Iran, while glycerol (99% purity) and selenium powder were purchased from Merck, Germany, and used without further purification. For film preparation, predetermined amounts of turmeric powder were dispersed in 100 mL of distilled water and stirred at 40–50°C and 500 rpm for 15 min, then filtered through a cloth filter to remove coarse particles. The required amount of selenium powder was added to the filtrate and stirred for another 15 min under the same conditions. Next, 2 g of salep powder were gradually added through a fine sieve to obtain a homogeneous mixture, followed by glycerol addition at 30% w/w relative to salep. Finally, 25 mL of the prepared solution was cast into 10-cm Petri dishes and dried at room temperature for 24 h. In total, 13 film formulations were prepared according to the statistical design.
 Results and Discussion
The results demonstrated that increasing the turmeric concentration enhanced the yellowness (b*) and decreased the lightness (L*) of the films, while the addition of selenium shifted the color toward the green/blue spectrum (a*). Regarding functional properties, turmeric exhibited antibacterial activity, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria, whereas selenium alone showed no effect; however, their combination revealed a strong synergistic antibacterial effect. A similar synergy was observed in antioxidant activity, where selenium stabilized and enhanced the effect driven by turmeric. Optical analysis indicated that turmeric increased light absorption and reduced transparency. Interestingly, the combination of turmeric and selenium reduced transparency less than individual components, suggesting its potential for protective packaging. FESEM imaging revealed that turmeric created a smooth, homogeneous surface, whereas selenium alone formed rough clusters; notably, their combination resulted in a more uniform surface by counteracting selenium aggregation. Finally, the UV–Vis spectrum of the turmeric extract confirmed the presence of three main absorption peaks at 342 nm (isomers), 380 nm (curcumin tautomers), and 457 nm (curcumin), with the latter shift attributed to the polarity and hydrogen bonding effects of the water solvent.
 Conclusion
This study, focusing on the development of biodegradable films based on salep powder reinforced with turmeric and selenium powders, demonstrated the potential of exploiting the synergy between them. Active biodegradable films using salep, turmeric, and selenium were developed in this study. Turmeric enhanced properties, while selenium boosted performance synergistically, improving antibacterial activity and structural stability. Tailoring film features offers protective packaging, reducing plastic waste and enabling intelligent packaging.