Iranian Food Science and Technology Research Journal

Abstract Introduction
Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide, with an estimated annual intake of about 500 billion cups. Roasting is a key step in coffee processing that develops the desirable color, flavor, and aroma, but it also promotes the formation of acrylamide through the Maillard reaction. Acrylamide is classified as a probable human carcinogen and has attracted increasing attention due to its occurrence in a variety of heat-treated foods. Given the growing popularity of coffee among the Iranian population, determining acrylamide levels in espresso and assessing the associated health risks are of public health importance. Therefore, this study aimed to determine acrylamide levels in commercially available espresso coffees and assess the related cancer and non-cancer risks in adolescents and adults.
Materials and Methods
In this study, a total of 35 espresso coffee samples were collected from the market. Of these, 26 samples were obtained from coffee shops (ES-C), and 9 were prepared at home from commercial coffee powders using a household espresso machine (ES-H), following common local preparation practices. Acrylamide concentrations in all samples were determined using HPLC-DAD with a mobile phase composed of water/acetonitrile (97:3, v/v) at a flow rate of 0.7 mL/min and a detection wavelength of 202 nm. The average daily intake (ADI) of acrylamide (μg/kg body weight/day) was estimated for adolescents and adults based on the measured acrylamide concentrations and the available consumption data. Health risk assessment was performed by calculating the margin of exposure (MOE) for carcinogenic effects, estimating the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR), and evaluating the non-carcinogenic risk using the target hazard quotient (THQ). The obtained MOE values were compared with the reference value of 10,000. In addition, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were evaluated against internationally accepted benchmarks, including those established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
Results and Discussion
Acrylamide was detected in all analyzed espresso samples. The concentration of acrylamide in ES-C ranged from 2.15 to 9.16 μg/100 mL and was consistently higher than that observed in ES-H, which ranged from 0.93 to 4.00 μg/100 mL. Despite the presence of acrylamide in all samples, the estimated dietary exposure via espresso consumption was relatively low. The EDI of acrylamide from espresso was calculated to be 0.004 μg/kg bw/day for adolescents and 0.007 μg/kg bw/day for adults. For all samples and both age groups, the MOE values were greater than 10,000, indicating a low level of concern and a low priority for risk management regarding carcinogenic effects. The incremental lifetime cancer risk attributed to acrylamide exposure from espresso consumption was estimated at 0.244 × 10^-5 for adolescents and 0.221 × 10^-5 for adults. Since both values were below the 10⁻⁵ benchmark proposed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the associated carcinogenic risk was considered to be low. Non‑carcinogenic risk indices were 0.0019 for adolescents and 0.0026 for adults, clearly below the threshold of 1, suggesting that non‑cancer effects are unlikely at the observed exposure levels. For all evaluated parameters, acrylamide exposure and the associated health risks were higher in adults than in adolescents. This difference can be attributed to higher consumption rates and greater body weight-adjusted intake among adults.
Conclusion
This study shows that acrylamide was present in all espresso coffee samples collected from the market, with coffee shop espresso generally containing higher levels than household espresso coffees. Nevertheless, acrylamide exposure through espresso consumption alone does not appear to pose a serious health risk to the studied adolescent and adult populations. The high MOE values, low estimated cancer risks, and non‑carcinogenic indices well below 1 collectively support a low level of concern. However, espresso is considered only one contributor to total dietary acrylamide intake, as acrylamide can also be formed in other thermally processed foods. Therefore, evaluation of combined exposure from various dietary sources and further investigation of cumulative health risks are recommended to provide a more comprehensive risk assessment.

Abstract Introduction
In recent years, consumer interest in traditional and natural dairy products has increased due to their perceived health benefits, cultural value, and unique sensory properties. Among traditional Iranian dairy products, sarshir is widely consumed and valued for its rich taste and high energy content. Sarshir is a traditional Iranian high-fat dairy product obtained through heat-induced creaming of milk. However, its industrial production faces several challenges, including long processing time, low yield, high susceptibility to lipid oxidation, and variability in texture and quality. Milk protein concentrate (MPC), rich in casein and whey proteins, is widely used in the dairy industry due to its functional properties such as emulsification, gelation, and texture enhancement. Therefore, the incorporation of MPC into sarshir formulations may improve structural stability, enhance sensory properties, and potentially enable partial fat reduction. Accordingly, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of different cream fat levels (50%, 60%, and 70%) and MPC concentrations (0%, 1%, and 2%) on the physicochemical, textural, sensory, yield, and shelf life of Sarshir, and to determine and introduce an optimal formulation for industrial production.
Materials and Methods
Raw milk was obtained from Sepidan Shir Company (Mashhad, Iran), and milk protein concentrate (MPC-80) was supplied by Pegah Isfahan Company (Isfahan, Iran). Sarshir samples were prepared by standardizing milk fat content to 50, 60, and 70% (w/w) using cream, along with MPC addition at 0, 1, and 2% (w/w). Raw milk was heated to 40–45 °C and centrifuged (7000 rpm) to obtain cream fractions, which were recombined with skim milk based on mass balance calculations. MPC was hydrated at 40 °C for 20 min under stirring. The mixtures were then heated to 90 °C and incubated at 43 °C for 3 h, followed by cooling at 5–6 °C for 24–48 h to form the sarshir layer. The sarshir layer was separated and analyzed for different properties. Shelf life was evaluated at 4–5 °C every 2 days based on sensory acceptability.
Results and Discussion
The highest dry matter and fat contents were observed in the samples containing 70% fat and 2% protein (68.03 g/g and 72.50%, respectively), whereas the lowest values were recorded in the control treatment (50% fat and 0% protein). The increase in MPC significantly affected the physicochemical properties, particularly pH and acidity (p< 0.05), with higher pH and lower acidity observed in formulations with higher fat and protein levels. The highest protein content (5.44%) was also recorded in samples containing 50% fat and 2% protein. Texture profile analysis indicated that increasing fat content from 50% to 70% significantly reduced hardness (61.00 to 21.00 g), consistency (5.00 to 1.75 g·s), and adhesiveness (25.50 to 9.50 g·s). In contrast, MPC addition generally increased textural parameters, suggesting a strengthening effect of milk proteins on the gel structure, while fat had a softening effect on product consistency. Accordingly, the lowest textural values were observed in the 70% fat and 2% protein treatment, whereas the highest hardness was associated with the control sample. Production yield was significantly influenced by formulation (p< 0.05), reaching a maximum in the 70% fat and 2% protein treatment (approximately 58%) and a minimum in the control sample (approximately 30%). However, storage time showed an inverse trend, decreasing with increasing fat and MPC levels, with the shortest storage time (7 days) observed in the 70% fat and 2% protein sample and the longest (16 days) in the control. Sensory evaluation revealed that although high-fat/high-protein samples showed improved creaminess and mouthfeel, the formulation containing 50% fat and 2% protein received the highest overall sensory scores, particularly for flavor intensity, dairy flavor, and creamy mouth feel aftertaste.
Conclusion
The results indicated that the addition of milk protein concentrate (MPC) significantly influenced the physicochemical, textural, and sensory properties of sarshir. Increasing both fat and MPC concentrations improved total solids, fat content, production yield, and textural attributes; however, such increasing trend was associated with a reduction in shelf life. The sample containing 50% fat and 2% MPC demonstrated the highest sensory acceptability. Overall, this formulation achieved an optimal balance between quality and stability, and is therefore recommended for industrial production.

Abstract Introduction
Olive Seeds is a major by-product of the olive oil industry, produced in millions of tons annually. It contains significant amounts of protein (approximately 13.5%) along with fiber, lipids, and phenolic compounds. However, native proteins have low solubility and complex structures that limit their functionality. Enzymatic hydrolysis is an eco-friendly method to release bioactive peptides with antioxidant, ACE-inhibitory, and cholesterol-lowering activities. The choice of enzyme is crucial; alcalase (a broad-specificity serine protease) and trypsin (a specific protease cleaving at lysine and arginine residues) produce different peptide profiles. Process variables such as hydrolysis time and enzyme-to-substrate (E/S) ratio significantly affect the degree of hydrolysis and antioxidant activity. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a powerful statistical tool for optimizing such multi-variable processes. Moreover, the stability of hydrolysates during storage, thermal processing, freeze-thaw cycles, and pH changes is essential for industrial applications. This study aimed to optimize the hydrolysis conditions (time and E/S ratio) for olive seeds protein using alcalase and trypsin via RSM, evaluate the antioxidant activities, and assess the stability of the optimal hydrolysates under different pH, heat, refrigeration, freeze-thaw, and ambient storage conditions.
Materials and Methods
Olive seeds were obtained from local market at Gorgan then dried, ground, defatted with hexane (AOAC method), and protein was isolated by alkaline extraction (pH 11) followed by isoelectric precipitation (pH 4). Protein isolate (5% w/v) was hydrolyzed in Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8 for alcalase, pH 7 for trypsin) at 50°C (alcalase) or 37°C (trypsin) with E/S ratios of 1–3% and 30–210 min according to a Central Composite Design (CCD) approach. The reaction was stopped by heating at 85°C for 30 min, then centrifuged and freeze-dried. Antioxidant activities were measured by different methods namely: DPPH radical scavenging, reducing power, and total antioxidant capacity (phosphomolybdenum method). Stability tests included: pH stability (pH 3–8, 30 min), thermal stability (95°C for 15–75 min), refrigeration storage stability (4°C for 15 days), freeze-thaw cycles stability (15 days), and ambient storage (25°C for 7 days). Data were analyzed by Design Expert, ANOVA followed by Duncan's multirange test (SPSS), and graphs prepared by Excel software.
Results and Discussion
RSM analysis showed that both time and E/S ratio had significant quadratic effects on DPPH, FRAP, and TAC for both enzymes. For alcalase, response surfaces exhibited a dome-shaped central peak with optimal conditions around 150 min and E/S 2%. For trypsin, a rising quadratic plateau was observed, with optimal conditions around 139 min and E/S 2%. These patterns confirm that excessive hydrolysis reduces antioxidant activity due to over-degradation of active peptides into free amino acids. Alcalase hydrolysates consistently showed higher antioxidant activities than trypsin hydrolysates, attributed to alcalase's preference for hydrolyzing at hydrophobic/aromatic amino acids (Phe, Tyr, Trp, Leu, Val) which are strong electron donors. Stability studies revealed, pH: Maximum TAC at pH 7–8, minimum at pH 3–4 (near isoelectric point). Alcalase hydrolysate was more stable. Heat (95°C): Gradual time-dependent decrease in both FRAP and TAC; alcalase hydrolysate retained higher activity after 75 min. Refrigeration (4°C, 15 days): Progressive decline in TAC and FRAP; alcalase hydrolysate showed slower decay. Freeze-thaw (15 days): Significant reduction after each cycle, mainly due to ice crystal damage and cryoconcentration; alcalase hydrolysate more resistant. Ambient (25°C, 7 days): Faster decline than refrigeration; alcalase hydrolysate.
Conclusion
The optimal hydrolysis conditions for olive seeds protein were determined using RSM. Alcalase-produced hydrolysate exhibited superior antioxidant activity and stability compared to trypsin-hydrolysate due to the release of hydrophobic/aromatic-rich peptides. Stability decreased in all tested conditions (heat, freeze-thaw, storage), but alcalase hydrolysateconsistently showed higher retention. These findings support the valorization of olive seeds protein as a source of stable antioxidant peptides for food and pharmaceutical applications.

Abstract Introduction
Fresh leafy vegetables contain vital macronutrients and micronutrients such as carbohydrates, fiber, minerals, and vitamins that are essential for body health. People are now consuming less vegetables in their diet because their preparation is time-consuming. These nutrients play a critical role in keeping physiological functions stable, boosting immune responses, and preventing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders or some kinds of cancer. Therefore, the market for packaged ready to eat fresh leafy vegetables has grown worldwide. This has created a new opportunity to bridge the gap between traditional and modern lifestyles, increase fresh product consumption, expand convenience foods, and promote well-documented health benefits. Although many vegetables are not available in high-quality packs, basil is a popular leafy vegetable in Iranian food preparation and consumption. This vegetable has a key flavor that is used as a garnish, in salads, stews, or traditional dishes, and gives cultural and culinary significance beyond its nutritional value. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is one of the most sensitive plants, with a very short shelf life and a unique aroma and flavor, which has made it an integral part of Mediterranean cuisine, too. Its sensory profile is attributed to its essential oil composition, mainly containing linalool, eugenol, and methyl chavicol, which are highly volatile and susceptible to degradation during postharvest handling. It has a soft and thin texture that makes it more sensitive to mechanical damage and environmental stresses. Therefore, even the smallest changes in the storage conditions can cause quick quality loss. Various negative quality effects that are reported during the storage time of fresh basil leaves include weight loss, chlorophyll degradation, leaf rot, browning, and loss of sensory properties, which lead to increased waste and reduced shelf life of this leafy vegetable. Weight loss primarily results from respiration and causes wilting and limpness, while chlorophyll breakdown increases yellow carotenoid pigments, giving leaves an undesired appearance that is a sign of aging and reduced freshness. Many parameters have been studied to reduce the spoilage rate of basil leaves, including changes in temperature, humidity, packaging materials and types; however, these methods could not successfully manage the negative quality effects to optimize the shelf life of fresh, cleaned basil leaves. For instance, using Ethylene producing inhibitors is a common way to maintain basil leaf quality; however, the most important challenge in storing this vegetable is its high sensitivity to low temperatures, and the absence of ethylene in the atmosphere makes the inhibitors useless. Also, using the inhibitors alone can cause moisture loss and wilting of the vegetable. Applying controlled temperature and moisture could limit browning and sensory degradation, but the loss of freshness and aroma remains a key unsolved challenge caused by essential metabolism in the leaf's cells. Moreover, using ionized or salt-based coatings caused off-flavors and limited the edibility of basil leaves. Inorganic coatings are effective moisture barriers in some cases, but often interact with the leaf surface in ways that alter the natural flavor profile, leading to bitterness or metallic notes that are unacceptable to consumers. Accordingly, it is not possible to scale up the production of packed clean basil leaves, and an essential need has been sensed in this area. Therefore, investigating appropriate methods to maintain the quality characteristics of basil during storage is a determinant research. The first accessible, facilitated method is leaf coating with controlled process parameters that decrease mechanical and physical damage to leaves on one hand and increase the stability of fresh quality on the other hand. Therefore, protective, insensitive amino acids might be a logical option to manage the chemical degradation processes. The amino acids are safe and low-cost, which makes them a useful choice for industrial applications. They can be used both as a foliar spray and as a dip or spray on the leaves. Amino acids not only coat the leaves but also inhibit some vital processes like oxidation, cellular respiration, and ethylene production, which helps keep cell and membrane integrity. However, not all amino acids are desired for this application and do not have the same result on a specific leafy vegetable. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the appropriateness of cysteine as a coating formed by the dip method on the quality parameters of basil leaves and the interaction effect of that with the application of modified atmosphere packaging to increase the shelf life and freshness of the leaves. Cysteine was especially chosen in this study due to its thiol group, which can confer strong antioxidant activity and has high potential to chelate metal ions that might be catalyzed in oxidative reactions, making it a promising candidate for fresh basil leaf preservation and maintaining its biochemical balance.
Materials and Methods
In this study, basil leaves with edible cysteine coating at three levels (0, 0.1, 0.5%), packaging type (normal air packaging and passive modified atmosphere packaging) and storage time (0, 5, 12, 9 days) at 4˚C, were prepared and the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases inside the package, pH, weight loss percentage, color parameters (a*, b*, L*), browning rate and sensory properties were determined.
Results and Discussion
The findings showed that the use of passive modified atmosphere packaging had a significant effect on reducing the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, along with reducing the respiration rate and increasing the storage time of basil leaves. The samples with normal air packaging showed the highest weight loss (3.07%) and the modified atmosphere packaging showed the lowest weight loss (1.88%). Increasing the concentration of cysteine in basil resulted in a reduction in weight loss and inhibition of the browning reaction compared to control (p<0.05).
Conclusion
Using a concentration of 0.1% cysteine in the coating was able to maintain the sensory properties of basil samples. Accordingly, the combined use of edible cysteine coating and modified atmosphere packaging has provred to preserve the quality of packaged basil samples and increased the storage time by up to 12 days.

Abstract Introduction
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that by 2050, food production must increase by 70% to feed the world’s projected 9.9 billion people. Consequently, the development of novel and innovative solutions to address existing challenges and improve food sustainability has become crucial. Three D food printing (3DFP) is an emerging technology in the food industry, categorized as an additive manufacturing method, which serves as an innovative alternative to conventional production technologies. This technology offers freedom in customized production and greater flexibility in product design based on consumer demand. 3D food printing holds the potential to produce highly customized foods in terms of shape, texture, flavor, structure, and nutritional value, while enabling the creation of unique formulations and edible alternatives. Given its advantages over traditional methods, 3DFP is increasingly attracting the attention of academia and industry; it is plausible that it may replace current food production methods in the near future. These printers operate via various mechanisms, most notably extrusion, powder bed fusion, binder jetting, and inkjet printing. This study discusses the raw materials suitable for food 3D printers.
Methods
A standard search methodology was employed across several databases, including ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and ISC. The selection criteria focused on articles published between 2009 and 2025 concerning food applications of additive manufacturing technology. Ultimately, 64 articles were selected and reviewed.
Results and Discussion
The results indicate that raw materials for 3DFP are generally categorized into three groups: natively printable, non-printable, and alternative materials.
Natively printable materials can be further classified into three sub-groups: sugars and confectionery products, dough-based foods and pastes, and food gels. Hydrogels, oleogels, pastry cream, cheese, hummus, ice cream, chocolate, powdered sugars, and starch-based ingredients belong to this category. The composition of these materials—specifically the ratio of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fibers—is critical in determining the printability and final quality of the edible structures, often requiring minimal pre-processing.
The second category includes materials that are not naturally printable and thus require specific pre-processing, such as the addition of food additives or blending with suitable printable materials, to achieve printability. Traditional foods, such as vegetables and fruits (rich in fiber), meat products (protein sources), and items with high moisture content, can be challenging to print because they often contain lower amounts of structural components like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. However, these foods are valuable sources of fiber, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals essential for human health. By incorporating hydrocolloids into non-printable materials and adjusting their rheological properties—such as viscosity, concentration, and flowability—these materials can be rendered printable. Hydrocolloids are hydrophilic polymers containing hydroxyl groups that typically possess polysaccharide or protein structures and may originate from plants, seaweed, animals, or microorganisms. Furthermore, the use of additives such as egg yolk, egg white, starch, and rice, wheat, or millet flours can enhance the printability of non-printable materials.
The third category includes alternative materials such as insects, algae, mushrooms, and lupin seeds, which are rich in nutrients but are generally considered unconventional food sources. Additionally, waste streams and by-products from food processing lines—such as fruit and vegetable peels, meat scraps, and fish parts—can be effectively utilized as raw materials for 3D printing. Constructing 3D structures from these alternative sources can significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions and serve as a promising solution to global hunger, particularly regarding malnutrition among infants and adolescents. Furthermore, food printing enables value creation from food waste, contributing to a greener circular economy.
In the long term, 3D printing is expected to transform food production by integrating multiple processing stages into a single unit and simplifying the supply chain. This study comprehensively addresses the printability and classification of food raw materials used in 3D printing.

Abstract Introduction
Temperature control throughout the food supply chain plays a pivotal role in preserving product quality and safety as well as extending shelf life. In recent years, phase change materials (PCMs) have emerged as a promising component of intelligent packaging systems due to their ability to regulate temperature through the absorption and release of latent heat. This passive thermal management mechanism effectively minimizes temperature fluctuations, reduces reliance on active refrigeration systems, and enhances the overall thermal stability of food products during storage and transportation. In particular, temperature fluctuations during transportation, retail display, and temporary interruptions in refrigeration can accelerate undesirable physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory changes in perishable foods. Therefore, maintaining a stable thermal environment is essential for products such as dairy products, meat, seafood, fresh produce, and other temperature-sensitive foods. Unlike conventional cooling systems that continuously consume energy, PCM-based approaches can store excess thermal energy when the surrounding temperature increases and release the stored latent heat when the temperature decreases. This characteristic makes PCMs particularly attractive for passive thermal buffering and for mitigating short-term temperature deviations within the cold chain.
Materials and methods
This review was conducted through a comprehensive search of the scientific literature available in major databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Relevant studies investigating the application of phase change materials (PCMs) in food packaging and cold chain systems were identified using carefully selected keywords. The retrieved publications were screened and selected based on their relevance to PCM properties, incorporation strategies, thermal performance, and their role in preserving food quality during storage and transportation. The selected studies were then critically evaluated and synthesized to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge, recent technological advances, existing challenges, and future research directions in this field. Particular attention was given to studies addressing the physicochemical characteristics of PCMs, including phase transition temperature, latent heat capacity, thermal stability, and compatibility with packaging matrices. In addition, reported effects on temperature regulation, product quality, storage stability, and cold-chain performance were considered in order to identify the practical potential of these technologies. The available evidence was compared across different PCM types and packaging configurations to highlight the factors that determine their effectiveness under realistic food storage and transportation conditions.
Results and Discussion
The findings of recent studies indicate that current attention has primarily focused on the development of biocompatible and biodegradable PCMs, the enhancement of thermal conductivity through the incorporation of nanomaterials, and the improvement of physical stability using encapsulation and shape-stabilization technologies. Significant advances in microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation techniques, the use of polymeric and biopolymeric shell materials, and the development of stable composite structures have contributed to reducing PCM leakage, enhancing thermal and mechanical stability, improving heat storage efficiency, and maintaining long-term performance over repeated melting and freezing cycles.
Despite these considerable advancements, several challenges continue to hinder the large-scale industrial application of PCM-based technologies. High production costs, the risk of material leakage during phase transitions, the inherently low thermal conductivity of some PCMs, and the difficulty of selecting an appropriate operating temperature range remain among the major limitations that must be addressed for broader commercial implementation.Recent research also suggests that the selection of an appropriate PCM should be closely related to the temperature requirements of the target food product and the conditions encountered throughout the cold chain. Organic PCMs, including fatty acids and paraffin-based materials, have received considerable attention because of their relatively suitable phase transition characteristics and chemical stability. At the same time, bio-based and biodegradable materials are increasingly being investigated to reduce environmental concerns associated with conventional packaging systems. The use of encapsulated PCMs can further improve their compatibility with packaging matrices and reduce direct contact between the PCM and food, which is particularly important when considering food safety and regulatory requirements. Moreover, combining PCMs with polymers, biopolymers, nanomaterials, or other functional components may provide multifunctional packaging systems capable of simultaneously improving thermal regulation and mechanical or barrier properties.
Conclusion
Overall, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of research and demonstrates that the development of sustainable, biocompatible, and cost-effective phase change materials (PCMs) can play a significant role in improving the performance of intelligent packaging systems, enhancing food safety, increasing the efficiency of the cold chain, and reducing the environmental impact of the packaging industry. The evidence reviewed in this study further indicates that the future development of PCM-based food packaging should move beyond simple thermal regulation toward integrated systems that combine effective heat management with sustainability, food safety, and improved packaging functionality. Greater emphasis on scalable encapsulation methods, biodegradable carrier materials, standardized performance evaluation, and validation under real cold-chain conditions will be essential for successful commercialization. Overall, continued interdisciplinary research involving food science, materials engineering, nanotechnology, and packaging technology can contribute to the development of reliable PCM-based solutions capable of reducing temperature-related quality losses and supporting a more sustainable and efficient food supply chain.